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Title page 1

Contents 5

Foreword 4

Executive summary 8

1. Assessment and recommendations 10

1.1. A framework for examining government-supported financial protection to respond to large-scale catastrophes 11

1.2. Examining the need for government-supported financial protection for natural hazard, infectious disease outbreak and cyber risks 13

1.3. Insurance coverage for wildfire risk 14

1.4. The design of flood risk insurance programmes 15

2. A framework for examining government-supported financial protection to respond to large-scale catastrophes 17

2.1. Introduction 18

2.2. Evaluating the need for government-supported financial protection 19

2.2.1. Identifying risks of potential concern 19

2.2.2. Assessing the adequacy of financial protection 21

2.2.3. Evaluating the need for government-supported financial protection 23

2.3. Determining the appropriate form of government-supported financial protection 27

2.3.1. Nature and implications of the unprotected financial exposure 30

2.3.2. Costs and benefits of insurance market participation 31

2.4. Conclusion 32

References 34

Notes 35

3. Examining the need for government-supported financial protection for natural hazard, cyber and infectious disease risks 37

3.1. Introduction 38

3.2. Evaluating the need for government-provided financial protection 38

3.2.1. Identifying risks of potential concern 38

3.3. Assessing the adequacy of financial protection 42

3.3.1. Availability of financial protection 43

3.3.2. Affordability of financial protection 45

3.3.3. Take-up of financial protection 46

3.4. Evaluating the need for government-supported financial protection 47

3.4.1. Factors linked to the nature and implications of the unprotected financial exposure 47

3.4.2. Factors linked to the potential for expanding financial protection 50

3.5. Determining the appropriate form of government-supported financial protection 55

3.5.1. Nature and implications of the risk exposure 55

3.6. Costs and benefits of insurance market participation 57

3.6.1. Leveraging (re)insurance market capacity 57

3.6.2. Support for quicker payments and reduced fraud 58

3.6.3. Potential contribution to risk management and reduction 60

3.7. Conclusion 62

References 63

Notes 72

4. Insurance coverage for wildfire risk 77

4.1. Introduction 78

4.2. Property insurance coverage for wildfire risk 81

4.2.1. Wildfire insurance availability 81

4.2.2. Wildfire insurance affordability 82

4.2.3. Wildfire insurance take-up 83

4.3. Measures to support the availability, affordability and take-up of insurance for wildfire risk 86

4.3.1. Enhancing the availability of insurance coverage 86

4.3.2. Improving the affordability of wildfire insurance coverage 89

4.3.3. Enhancing the take-up of insurance coverage 93

4.4. Conclusion 94

References 95

Notes 101

5. The design of flood risk insurance programmes 106

5.1. Introduction 107

5.2. Design features in flood risk insurance programmes 109

5.2.1. Programme scope 111

5.2.2. Type of coverage provided and role in the market 113

5.2.3. Approach to premium pricing 115

5.2.4. Governance arrangements 116

5.3. Achieving broad flood insurance coverage 118

5.3.1. Ensuring the availability of coverage for flood risk 118

5.3.2. Supporting the affordability of flood risk insurance coverage 120

5.3.3. Supporting take-up of flood insurance coverage 122

5.3.4. Levels of coverage for past flood losses 127

5.4. Leveraging market expertise and capacity 129

5.5. Minimising impacts on public finances 136

5.5.1. Financial support provided to flood risk insurance programmes 136

5.5.2. Fiscal risks related to government financial support 137

5.6. Encouraging and supporting flood risk reduction 143

5.6.1. Sharing flood risk insights in support of risk reduction 144

5.6.2. Incentivising risk reduction through premiums and access conditions 146

5.6.3. Funding risk reduction activities 149

5.7. Conclusions 149

References 151

Notes 160

Tables 6

Table 3.1. Likelihood, impact severity and extent of natural hazard, infectious disease outbreak and cyber risks 38

Table 3.2. Economic impact of selected major events 42

Table 3.3. Adequacy of financial protection for natural hazard, cyber and infectious disease outbreak risks 43

Table 3.4. Risk characteristics and potential implications of unprotected financial exposure to natural hazard,... 47

Table 3.5. Potential impediments to expanding financial protection for natural hazard, infectious disease outbreak and cyber risks 51

Table 3.6. Factors that could impact the appropriate form of government-supported financial protection for natural hazard,... 55

Table 4.1. Wildfire risk characteristics 80

Table 5.1. Public-private insurance programmes that cover some flood hazards 110

Table 5.2. Types of flood hazards covered by the programme 112

Table 5.3. Types of insureds eligible for programme coverage 113

Table 5.4. Type of coverage provided by programme 114

Table 5.5. Approach to setting premiums for programme coverage 116

Table 5.6. Authority for programme design 117

Table 5.7. Flood insurance affordability challenges in selected countries 122

Table 5.8. Measures that can support the purchase of insurance for flood risk 124

Table 5.9. Estimates of the take-up of flood insurance coverage 126

Table 5.10. Private sector involvement in distributing flood insurance and assuming flood risk 133

Table 5.11. Availability of private market catastrophe models for flood risk 135

Table 5.12. Potential fiscal risks related to government support for flood risk insurance programmes 143

Table 5.13. Programme contributions to risk reduction 144

Table 5.14. Development in areas exposed to flood risk (1985-2015 and 2020) 146

Figures 6

Figure 1.1. Evaluating the need for government-supported financial protection 12

Figure 1.2. Determining the appropriate approach to providing government-supported financial protection 13

Figure 2.1. Framework for assessing the need for and approach to government-supported financial protection 19

Figure 2.2. Types of large-scale risks and potential impacts 20

Figure 2.3. Identifying risks of potential concern 21

Figure 2.4. Assessing the adequacy of financial protection 22

Figure 2.5. Factors that could increase the need for government-supported financial protection 25

Figure 2.6. Determining the appropriate form of government-supported financial protection 30

Figure 4.1. Wildfire economic losses (2000-2024) 78

Figure 4.2. Insurance coverage of wildfire losses and property insurance penetration 81

Figure 4.3. Premium costs as a share of monthly income 83

Figure 4.4. Insurance take-up and wildfire exposure in Italy, Portugal and Spain 85

Figure 4.5. FAIR Plan policy growth 87

Figure 4.6. Premium differential between urban, suburban and rural households 90

Figure 4.7. Housing tenures in wildfire-exposed countries (2024) 93

Figure 5.1. Economic losses from floods 107

Figure 5.2. Flood Hazard Scores (present and 2℃ of warming) 108

Figure 5.3. Insured share of flood losses (2000-2024) 109

Figure 5.4. Programme coverage limits relative to housing prices 119

Figure 5.5. Estimated share of flood losses insured (2000-2024) 128

Figure 5.6. Estimates of the reinsurance or retrocession share of premiums and claims: selected programmes (2017-2024, cumulative) 132

Figure 5.7. Programme reinsurance results (2017-2024) 138

Figure 5.8. Estimated claims ratio: selected programmes (2016-2024) 141

Boxes 7

Box 2.1. Measures of home insurance affordability 23

Box 2.2. The implications of different social and economic characteristics and values 24

Box 2.3. Insurability in private insurance markets 25

Box 2.4. Main forms of government-supported financial protection 28

Box 3.1. Cyber catastrophes 41

Box 3.2. Potential implications of cyber insurance exclusions and limitations 45

Box 3.3. Parliamentary and Congressional hearings on insurer claims processing 59

Box 4.1. Southern California wildfires (January 2025) 79

Box 5.1. Private flood insurance in the United States 130

Box 5.2. Public compensation and financial assistance 139

출판사 책소개

알라딘제공
Increasing damages and losses from large-scale catastrophe risks such as natural hazards and cyber attacks are impacting the availability of affordable insurance coverage. This is forcing governments to increase their focus on addressing the resulting protection gaps. This report aims to support policymakers and regulators in building financial resilience to catastrophe risks. It introduces a framework for evaluating the need and best approach to offering government-supported financial protection for large-scale catastrophe risks. It then applies the framework to a set of large-scale risks, including natural hazards, cyber and infectious disease risks. It also examines the particular challenges in the availability of affordable insurance coverage for two types of natural hazards, wildfires and floods, and the different approaches to addressing those challenges.

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