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Title page 1

Contents 5

Foreword 4

Executive summary 8

1. Introduction 11

1.1. Policy context 12

1.2. Methodology 14

1.3. Terms used in this report 15

2. Drivers of financial scams and frauds 16

2.1. Most significant driver(s) of financial scams and frauds 18

2.2. Drivers stemming from the operating environment 20

2.3. Drivers stemming from demand-side factors 23

2.4. Weak controls and systems of financial services providers and other stakeholders can expose consumers to financial scams and frauds 27

3. Classifying financial scams and frauds targeting consumers 30

3.1. Criteria used to classify reported data on financial scams and frauds 31

3.2. Challenges in developing a typology of financial scams and frauds 33

3.3. A proposed typology of ten key dimensions for classifying financial scams and frauds targeting consumers 34

3.3.1. Target 34

3.3.2. Contact medium 34

3.3.3. Scheme or modus operandi 35

3.3.4. Financial product or service targeted 35

3.3.5. Method of payment or investment of funds 35

3.3.6. Detection method 35

3.3.7. Recovery status of funds 35

3.3.8. Nature of authorisation (authorised vs unauthorised) 35

3.3.9. Status of entity 36

3.3.10. The perpetrator 36

3.4. Using the typology in practice 37

4. Financial consumer protection and financial education approaches to tackle financial scams and frauds 39

4.1. Financial consumer protection approaches 40

4.1.1. Using strong customer authentication to detect and prevent fraud 40

4.1.2. Detection of unauthorised transactions 41

4.1.3. Detection of authorised transaction fraud 42

4.1.4. Training staff to detect and recognise fraud 44

4.1.5. Using artificial intelligence (AI) to detect financial fraud 45

4.1.6. Stopping fraudulent transactions 46

4.1.7. Reporting incidents of financial scams and frauds 46

4.1.8. Liability and reimbursement 48

4.2. Challenges in implementation or improving the effectiveness of financial consumer protection measures 50

4.3. Financial education approaches 51

4.3.1. Consumer awareness campaigns about financial scams and frauds 52

4.3.2. Informing consumers on where to report financial scams and frauds 54

4.3.3. Programmes or initiatives to raise digital financial literacy and/or digital capabilities of financial consumers 55

4.3.4. Integration of financial scams and frauds into national financial education or inclusion strategies 58

4.4. Challenges faced when using financial education to prevent financial scams and frauds 59

5. Collaboration with other stakeholders 60

5.1. Collaboration to encourage information and data sharing 64

5.2. Cross-border collaboration 65

5.3. The importance of collaboration with telecommunications providers, social media and online platforms 65

6. Conclusions and policy recommendations 67

6.1. Establish and enforce robust financial consumer protection frameworks 68

6.1.1. ...including enforcement of AML/CFT requirements 69

6.2. Develop fair and accessible liability and redress mechanisms 69

6.3. Establish and promote a dedicated reporting channel 70

6.4. Use a typology to collect and classify data on financial scams and frauds 71

6.5. Raise levels of digital financial literacy and promote consumer awareness about financial scams and frauds 71

6.5.1. ...and raise awareness among consumers about how to detect and prevent becoming a victim to financial scams and frauds 72

6.6. Collaborate with stakeholders across the anti-fraud ecosystem 73

6.6.1. ...and engage in international collaboration and information sharing 74

References 75

Annex A. List of respondents to the Questionnaire 81

Annex B. Glossary of conduct and tactics of financial fraudsters and scammers 84

Annex C. Classification template 89

Notes 96

Tables 6

Table 1.1. Definitions of terms used throughout the report 15

Table 2.1. Most significant types of financial scams and frauds, by number of people affected and by financial losses 18

Table 3.1. Key dimensions of financial scams and frauds 36

Table 3.2. Incident Example 1 37

Table 3.3. Incident Example 2 38

Table 3.4. Incident Example 3 38

Figures 6

Figure 1.1. G20/OECD High-Level Principles on Financial Consumer Protection 13

Figure 2.1. Proportion of jurisdictions where reported financial scams and frauds increased, stayed the same or decreased (2021-2022 and 2024-2025) 17

Figure 2.2. Most significant drivers of financial scams and frauds stemming from the operating environment 20

Figure 2.3. Growth in digital transactions between 2017 and 2024 22

Figure 2.4. Most significant demand-side drivers of financial scams and frauds 23

Figure 2.5. Victimisation and financial literacy levels 24

Figure 2.6. Most significant ways that weak systems and controls of financial services providers and other stakeholders can expose consumers... 28

Figure 3.1. Criteria used to classify reported data on financial scams and frauds 32

Figure 3.2. Typology of financial scams and frauds 34

Figure 4.1. Financial consumer protection approaches to address financial scams and frauds 40

Figure 4.2. Authorities to which data on financial scams and frauds must be reported 47

Figure 4.3. Liability and reimbursements standards or requirements 48

Figure 4.4. Financial education approaches 51

Figure 4.5. Participation in consumer awareness campaigns 52

Figure 4.6. Digital financial literacy levels 55

Figure 5.1. Collaboration practices 61

Figure 5.2. Stakeholders involved in collaboration on financial scams and frauds 62

Boxes 7

Box 2.1. Recent actions by public authorities to address risks linked to social media and online platforms 21

Box 2.2. Behavioural elements of falling victim to financial scams and frauds 25

Box 4.1. Unauthorised versus authorised transaction fraud 43

Box 4.2. Anti-fraud protections in the European Union: from PSD2 to PSR and PSD3 50

Box 4.3. Developing effective interventions to help educate and protect consumers from financial scams and frauds 56

Box 5.1. Collaboration with AML/CFT and financial crime authorities 63

Infographics 6

Infographic 1. Key figures and recommendations 10

Annex Tables 7

Table A A.1. List of respondents to the Questionnaire 81

Table A B.1. Blackmail, threat or extortion 84

Table A B.2. Charity and disaster scams 84

Table A B.3. Dating and romance scams 84

Table A B.4. Debt settlement / debt relief and credit scams 85

Table A B.5. Identity theft 85

Table A B.6. Investment scams 85

Table A B.7. Job and employment scams 86

Table A B.8. Merchant or purchase fraud 86

Table A B.9. Scammers posing as banks, financial advisers or other FSPs 86

Table A B.10. Scammers posing as representatives of the government or official entities (e.g. revenue services, social assistance) 87

Table A B.11. SIM swapping 87

Table A B.12. Skimming 87

Table A B.13. Tricking consumers into providing personally identifiable information 87

Table A B.14. Unexpected money scams 88

Table A B.15. Other 88

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