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Title page 1

Contents 6

Foreword 4

Acknowledgements 5

Abbreviations and acronyms 8

Executive summary 10

1. Overview and key findings 12

Introduction 13

Enhancing the understanding and measurement of informal learning: Towards a comprehensive, shared definition 13

Key findings: Benefits, participation, drivers, and policy approaches (Chapter 2) 15

Key findings: Strengthening the definition of informal learning (Chapter 3) 20

Key findings: Enhancing the measurement of informal learning (Chapter 4) 23

Next steps 25

References 27

2. Benefits, participation, drivers, and policy approaches 28

Why informal learning matters 30

Why informal learning is becoming even more important 38

Who are participating in informal learning 44

What drives informal learning 50

How can governments promote informal learning 59

References 65

3. Strengthening the definition of informal learning 83

Assessment 85

Priority Topic 1: Harmonising conceptual definitions and embedding them into education and lifelong learning systems 93

Priority Topic 2: Promoting more consistent operationalisation of the definition of informal learning 95

References 102

4. Enhancing the measurement of informal learning 107

Assessment 109

Priority Topic 3: Strengthening international survey instruments 124

Priority Topic 4: Complementing international instruments with national measures 128

Priority Topic 5: Promoting ongoing innovation in the definition and measurement of informal learning 131

References 133

Annex A. Quantitative analysis of informal learning 137

References 144

Tables 7

Table 2.1. Differences from EU average for types of informal learning 46

Table 2.2. Drivers behind informal learning across EU countries using AES 59

Table 3.1. Attributes of education and learning activities according to the Classification of Learning Activities (CLA) 2016 86

Table 3.2. Examples of typical informal learning activities 88

Table 4.1. Comparison questionnaire Netherlands and Belgium (Flanders) AES 2022 113

Table 4.2. Differences between AES and PIAAC in terms of measurement and representation 117

Table 4.3. Examples of research utilising alternative methodologies to examine informal learning 124

Figures 7

Figure 1.1. Overview 5 priority topics and 10 recommendations for better defining and measuring informal learning 15

Figure 1.2. Participation formal and non-formal education and training, by informal learning, EU average 16

Figure 1.3. Participation rate informal learning, total and job-related 18

Figure 1.4. Prevalence of definitions of informal learning 21

Figure 1.5. Visualisation of the typology of informal learning 23

Figure 2.1. Overview of the benefits of informal learning 30

Figure 2.2. Complementarities formal, non-formal education and training versus informal learning 32

Figure 2.3. Interaction between learning, performance, and environment 33

Figure 2.4. Engagement in informal learning and impact on work satisfaction and promotions 37

Figure 2.5. Engagement with different types of informal learning 45

Figure 2.6. Participation rates in informal learning by different age groups 48

Figure 2.7. Participation rates in informal learning by different socio-demographic characteristics 49

Figure 2.8. Relation between informal learning and formal and non-formal education and training 50

Figure 2.9. Change in participation in non-formal education and training types, when learning informally, EU average 51

Figure 2.10. Drivers of informal learning 51

Figure 2.11. Job characteristics and the relation with informal learning 53

Figure 2.12. Extent to which informal learning is explained by individual and workplace characteristics in PIAAC 58

Figure 3.1. Learning types by intentionality and consciousness 90

Figure 3.2. Examples of the typology's different categories 98

Figure 3.3. Tool for classifying different types of informal learning 101

Figure 4.1. Total survey error paradigm 116

Figure 4.2. Extent to which respondents understood questions in PIAAC, according to the interviewer 120

Figure 4.3. Prevalence of measurement approaches for informal learning 121

Figure 4.4. Scenarios for measuring participation in adult learning 123

Figure 4.5. Illustrative mapping of international survey measures of informal learning 126

Boxes 14

Box 1.1. Project activities and outputs 14

Box 1.2. The "triadic" classification of different forms of learning 20

Box 1.3. OECD recommended conceptual definition of informal learning 22

Box 2.1. OECD analysis on drivers behind participation in informal learning 47

Box 2.2. Relevant examples of integrating informal learning into education and lifelong learning systems 61

Box 2.3. Relevant examples of promoting learning-conducive workplaces 62

Box 2.4. Relevant examples of expanding access to infrastructure and resources 64

Box 3.1. European Union's Classification of Learning Activities (CLA) 86

Box 3.2. Example conceptual definitions of informal learning 91

Box 3.3. Example of building understanding of informal learning among employers: Belgium 95

Box 3.4. Example of operationalising a multi-dimensional typology of adult learning: Canada 100

Box 4.1. The European Training and Learning Survey by CEDEFOP 110

Box 4.2. Different data collection modes 118

Box 4.3. Measurement moving beyond the triadic classification 122

Box 4.4. Example of Computer-Assisted Coding Tools: United Kingdom 128

Box 4.5. Example of complementary national survey instruments: Netherlands 129

Box 4.6. Example of an international expert working group: The UN Expert Group on Wellbeing Measurement (EGWM) 130

Box 4.7. Example of innovative, international research programmes: Horizon Europe 132

Box 4.8. Examples of international conferences to foster knowledge exchange: European Conference on Educational Research (ECER) 133

Annex Tables 7

Table A A.1. PIAAC Indicators included in the analysis 138

Table A A.2. AES Indicators included in the analysis 139

Table A A.3. Results - benefits of informal learning 141

Table A A.4. Drivers of informal learning - main results 142

Table A A.5. Drivers of informal learning - with and without Big 5 personality types 143

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