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Title page 1

Contents 7

Foreword 4

Acknowledgements 5

Abbreviations and acronyms 10

Executive summary 11

1. Overview: Masculinities, gender-based violence and economic empowerment in Côte d'Ivoire and Senegal 13

Why masculinities matter 14

Restrictive masculinities in Côte d'Ivoire and Senegal: Persistence, pressures and change 15

How restrictive masculinities shape women's economic empowerment and gender-based violence 19

Promoting positive masculinities: Pathways for change 23

Policy recommendations 24

References 27

2. Masculine norms in Côte d'Ivoire 28

In brief 29

Insights from the OECD's Masculinities Index for Côte d'Ivoire 31

A "silent gap" between personal beliefs and social expectations creates space for change 38

Restrictive masculinities harm men as well as women - making transformation urgent 40

Conclusion and policy recommendations 42

Annex 2.A. OECD Masculinities Index results for Côte d'Ivoire 45

Annex 2.B. Methodology for the construction of the OECD Masculinities Index 46

References 49

Notes 52

3. Masculine norms in Senegal 54

In brief 55

Positive masculinity is gaining policy traction, but restrictive norms remain widespread 56

Restrictive masculinities are sustained through socialisation, sanctions and structural pressures 58

Pressures and misperceptions create both tensions and opportunities for change 60

Conclusion and policy recommendations 61

Annex 3.A. Conceptual framework on restrictive masculine norms in Senegal 64

References 65

4. How masculinity norms shape women's economic empowerment 66

In brief 67

Restrictive masculinities shape women's access to employment and decent work 68

Unpaid care and domestic work are a central pathway through which restrictive masculinities constrain women's paid employment 72

Restrictive masculinities constrain women's agency in decision-making and control over resources 77

Conclusion and policy recommendations 81

References 83

Notes 85

5. Transforming masculinities to prevent gender-based violence 88

In brief 89

Gender-based violence is widespread and extends beyond intimate relationships 90

Shame, social pressure and acceptance of violence limit reporting and obscure the full scale of gender-based violence 94

Restrictive masculinities explain perpetration, not victimisation 95

Normalisation of violence and weak accountability allow abuse to persist 97

Conclusion and policy recommendations 98

References 100

Notes 102

Tables 9

Table 2.1. Applying the OECD masculinity framework in Côte d'Ivoire 34

Table 2.2. The breadwinner norm is the strongest norm across most regions 36

Table 2.3. Health outcomes differ by gender in Côte d'Ivoire 41

Table 3.1. Prevalence of masculine norms in Senegal 57

Figures 8

Figure 1.1. The ten norms of restrictive masculinities 15

Figure 1.2. People overestimate men's support for restrictive masculinities and underestimate women's support 18

Figure 1.3. Women do most unpaid care and domestic work, and most people believe it is their job 20

Figure 1.4. Acceptance of violence depends on how and where it occurs 22

Figure 2.1. Sampling frame for the masculinities study in Côte d'Ivoire 30

Figure 2.2. Restrictive masculinities are widespread in Côte d'Ivoire but vary across regions 31

Figure 2.3. Young men express higher support for restrictive masculinities than young women 33

Figure 2.4. The provider and decision maker norms are central to restrictive masculinities 35

Figure 2.5. Higher educational attainment is associated with lower adherence to restrictive masculinities 37

Figure 2.6. People overestimate men's and underestimate women's support for restrictive masculinities 39

Figure 2.7. Strong expectations about gender roles limit women's and men's opportunities 42

Figure 3.1. Economic indicators highlight the vulnerability of Senegalese youth 59

Figure 3.2. People overestimate others' support for restrictive masculinities 61

Figure 4.1. In Côte d'Ivoire and Senegal there are significant gaps in labour force participation 69

Figure 4.2. A large share of women in Côte d'Ivoire and Senegal is employed in vulnerable forms of employment 70

Figure 4.3. Gender-based occupational segregation remains substantial in Côte d'Ivoire and Senegal 71

Figure 4.4. Women bear a disproportionate burden of unpaid care and domestic work in Côte d'Ivoire and Senegal 73

Figure 4.5. There are significant gender gaps in unpaid care and domestic work in all regions of Côte d'Ivoire 74

Figure 4.6. Low early childhood enrolment undermines women's economic empowerment 75

Figure 4.7. Unpaid care and domestic work is widely perceived as a "women's job" in Côte d'Ivoire 76

Figure 4.8. Uneven expectations: Men's contribution to unpaid care and domestic work by task 77

Figure 4.9. In Côte d'Ivoire and Senegal, women have less control over economic decisions 78

Figure 4.10. Gender gaps in asset ownership rates persist in Côte d'Ivoire and Senegal 80

Figure 5.1. Prevalence of intimate-partner violence varies by region and type of abuse in Côte d'Ivoire 91

Figure 5.2. Men are more often perpetrators of violence than women in Côte d'Ivoire 92

Figure 5.3. Psychological and physical violence are the most common forms of violence against women in Senegal 93

Figure 5.4. A non-negligible share of the population justifies men's use of violence 95

Boxes 9

Box 1.1. Good practices and initiatives promoting positive masculinity 23

Box 2.1. Data collection and analysis on masculinities in Côte d'Ivoire 30

Box 2.2. The North-South Divide 32

Box 2.3. Calculating the OECD's Masculinities Index 34

Box 3.1. Data collection and analytical approach 56

Box 4.1. Data sources and comparability 68

Box 5.1. Data sources and comparability 93

Annex Tables 9

Annex Table 2.A.1. OECD Masculinities Index scores for Côte d'Ivoire 45

Annex Table 3.A.1. Ten-norm conceptual framework on restrictive masculine norms 64

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