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Title page 1

Contents 4

Abbreviations 10

Contributors 11

Acknowledgments 13

Foreword 14

Introduction 16

PART I. Intersecting Dimensions of Food Security, Well-Being, and Inequality 25

Part I Summary 26

1. Does Greater Subjective Well-Being Lead to Improved Food and Nutrition Security or Vice Versa?: Analysis from the Indonesian Family... 29

1.1. Introduction 29

1.2. Data Collection and Methodology 34

1.3. Methods 39

1.4. Result 50

1.5. Discussion 58

1.6. Conclusion 65

References 67

2. Growing Urban Vulnerabilities: Comparative Rural-Urban Food Security Among Pakistan's Casual Wage Workers amid Food Price Hikes 73

2.1. Introduction 73

2.2. Conceptual Framework 76

2.3. Data Source and Analytical Strategy 80

2.4. Results 85

2.5. Discussion and Conclusion 96

References 99

Appendix 103

3. Analyzing Barriers to Adequate Dairy Consumption in Indian Households: A Comparative Analysis Using the Consumer Expenditure... 108

3.1. Introduction 108

3.2. Material and Methods 111

3.3. Results 117

3.4. Discussion 127

3.5. Limitations 129

3.6. Conclusion 129

References 130

4. Rural and Semi-Urban Disparities in Household Food Security amid the Pandemic: Evidence from the Vietnamese Mekong Delta 135

4.1. Introduction 135

4.2. Literature Review 136

4.3. Methodology 140

4.4. Results 145

4.5. Discussion 150

4.6. Conclusions 156

References 158

PART II. The Role of Agriculture Policies in Shaping Nutritional Choices and Outcomes 169

Part II Summary 170

5. Dairy Development and Nutritional Outcomes of Children: Evidence from India 173

5.1. Introduction 173

5.2. Relevant Literature 175

5.3. National Dairy Plan in India 176

5.4. Data Description 179

5.5. Identification Strategy 182

5.6. Results 188

5.7. Discussion 198

5.8. Conclusions and Policy Implications 200

References 201

6. Factors Affecting the Organic Food Consumption Behavior of the Residents in Hung Yen Province, Viet Nam 203

6.1. Introduction 203

6.2. Theoretical Framework and Literature Review 205

6.3. Research Methodology 209

6.4. Results and Discussion 215

6.5. Conclusion and Policy Implications 225

References 228

7. Importance of Pulses in Ensuring Food and Nutritional Security in India 233

7.1. Introduction 233

7.2. Data and Empirical Strategy 237

7.3. Results and Discussion 240

7.4. Concluding Remarks and Policy Implications 258

References 261

Appendix A7 266

Tables 6

Table 1.1. Important Weight Among Food Group 38

Table 1.2. Descriptive Statistics, Study in Indonesia, 2007-2014 39

Table 1.3. Relationship of Food Consumption Score and Subjective Well-Being in Indonesia, 2007-2014 47

Table 1.4. Relationship of Nutritional Status, Food Consumption Score, and Subjective Well-Being in Indonesia, 2007-2014 48

Table 1.5. Relationship Between Subjective Well-Being and Expenditure Share in Indonesia, 2007-2014 57

Table 2.1. Summary Counts of Sampled Individuals Across Three Rural Villages and Three Urban Slums, Oct-Dec 2021 82

Table 2.2. Background Attributes of Sampled Individuals Across Islamabad Slums (Urban) and Mandi Bahauddin Villages (Rural) 89

Table 2.3. Relative Food Security Status Across Islamabad Slums (Urban) and Mandi Bahauddin Villages (Rural) 91

Table 2.4. Determinants of Food Consumption Score Across Islamabad Slums (Urban) and Mandi Bahauddin Villages (Rural) 93

Table 2.5. Determinants of Reduced Coping Strategies Index Across Islamabad Slums (Urban) and Mandi Bahauddin Villages (Rural) 94

Table 3.1. Sociodemographic Characteristics of Participant Households 112

Table 3.2. Definition of Outcome and Explanatory Variables 118

Table 3.3. All-India Intake and Production of Milk 120

Table 3.4. Double Hurdle Model Regression Estimates for Consumption Participation and Marginal Effects for the Household 30-Day Milk... 124

Table 3.5. Double Hurdle Model Regression Estimates for Consumption Participation and Marginal Effects for the Household 30-Day Milk... 125

Table 4.1. Socioeconomic and Demographic Characteristics of Participating Households in Rural and Semi-Urban Regions 146

Table 5.1. Summary of Data and Variables Used 179

Table 5.2. Summary Statistics on Children's Nutritional Outcomes 183

Table 5.3. Comparative Statistics for Livestock Quantity and Value Between Treated and Control States, 2013 188

Table 5.4. Comparative Statistics for Livestock Quantity and Value Between Treated and Control States, 2019 188

Table 5.5. Impact of National Dairy Plan on Child's Height-by-Age Percentile Score 189

Table 5.6. Impact of National Dairy Plan on the Prevalence of Stunting 190

Table 5.7. Estimates Based on Pooled Data 191

Table 5.8. Impact of National Dairy Plan on the Prevalence of Wasting 192

Table 5.9. Impact of National Dairy Plan on Likelihood of Low Birth Weight 193

Table 5.10. Impact of National Dairy Plan on Average Household's Milk Production 194

Table 5.11. Impact of National Dairy Plan on Average Household's Milk Revenue 195

Table 5.12. Impact of National Dairy Plan on the Likelihood of Daily Consumption 196

Table 5.13. Heterogeneous Impact Across Residence Type and Cattle Ownership 197

Table 5.14. Heterogeneous Impact of National Dairy Plan Across Rural Households with Landholding Size 198

Table 6.1. Variables and Items 213

Table 6.2. Sample Profile 216

Table 6.3. Reliability of the Measurement 217

Table 6.4. Summary of Exploratory Factor Analysis 219

Table 6.5. Relationship Between the Research Concepts in the Critical Model 222

Table 6.6. Structural Equation Model Results and Hypotheses Testing 223

Table 7.1. Changes in Monthly Per Capita Food Consumption Patterns in Rural and Urban India 241

Table 7.2. Trends in Composition of Monthly Per Capita Consumption Expenditure 242

Table 7.3. Demographically and Activity-Wise Adjusted Energy and Protein Norms and Actual Intake 244

Table 7.4. Prevalence of Undernutrition and Malnutrition Based on Norms in Various Income Groups 246

Table 7.5. Adjusted Calorie, Protein, and Fat Intakes from Pulses in India 250

Table 7.6. Adjusted Macronutrient Intakes Sourced from Pulses Across Income Groups in India 252

Table 7.7. Adjusted Macronutrient Intakes Sourced from Pulses Across Social Group Identities in India 254

Figures 8

Figure 1.1. Bidirectional Relationship Between Subjective Well-Being, Food Security, and Nutrition Security 30

Figure 1.2. Path Analysis Between Subjective Well-Being, Food Consumption Score, and Body Mass Index in Indonesia, 2007-2014 41

Figure 1.3. Multinomial Logit Regression of Subjective Well-Being, Food Consumption Score, and Body Mass Index in Indonesia, 2007-2014 42

Figure 1.4. The Distribution of Food Expenditure Across Food Items (Lowest vs Highest Subjective Well-Being Quantile) in Indonesia, 2014 49

Figure 1.5. Changes over Time of Food Consumption Score, Body Mass Index, and Subjective Well-Being in Indonesia, 2007-2014 51

Figure 1.6. Path Analysis for Identifying Bidirectional Relationship Between Subjective Well-Being, Body Mass Index, and Food Consumption... 52

Figure 2.1. Region and Gender-Sensitive Approach to Food Security 75

Figure 3.1. Conceptual Framework Used for the Analysis 113

Figure 3.2. Mean Milk Availability and Consumption Across Indian States for the 61st Round of the Household Consumer Expenditure Survey 119

Figure 3.3. Mean Milk Availability and Consumption Across Indian States for the 68th Round of the Household Consumer Expenditure Survey 119

Figure 3.4. Distribution of 30-Day Milk Consumption for the Households That Reported Milk Consumption by Selected Household-Level... 121

Figure 3.5. Distribution of 30-Day Milk Consumption for the Households That Reported Milk Consumption by Selected Household-Level... 122

Figure 4.1. Flowchart of the Study's Sampling Procedures 142

Figure 4.2. Household Food Insecurity Access Scale Domains Among Participating Households Between Rural and Semi-Urban Areas... 147

Figure 4.3. Prevalence of Food Security/Insecurity Between Rural and Semi-Urban Areas in the Vietnamese Mekong Delta amid the COVID-19... 148

Figure 4.4. Associations between Predictors and Household Food Insecurity in Rural Areas in the Vietnamese Mekong Delta amid the COVID-19... 149

Figure 4.5. Associations between Predictors and Household Food Insecurity in Semi-Urban Areas in the Vietnamese Mekong Delta amid... 150

Figure 5.1. Macro Trend in Milk Production 177

Figure 5.2. Trends of Height-by-Age Percentile Score Among Treated and Control Group 184

Figure 6.1. Proposed Research Model 212

Figure 6.2. Summary of Confirmatory Factor Analysis 221

Figure 6.3. Structural Equation Model 223

Figure 7.1. Composition of Pulses Consumption in Rural India 249

Figure 7.2. Composition of Pulses Consumption in Urban India 249

Figure 7.3. Statewise Daily Per Capita Calorie Intakes Sourced from Pulses Consumption in Rural India 255

Figure 7.4. Statewise Daily Per Capita Calorie Intakes Sourced from Pulses Consumption in Urban India 256

Figure 7.5. Statewise Daily Per Capita Protein Intakes Sourced from Pulses Consumption in Rural India 257

Figure 7.6. Statewise Daily Per Capita Protein Intakes Sourced from Pulses Consumption in Urban India 258

Appendix Tables 103

Table A2.1. Gendered Background Attributes Across Islamabad Slums (Urban) and Mandi Bahauddin Villages (Rural) 103

Table A2.2. Consumption Frequency of Various Food Items over a Week's Period Across Islamabad Slums (Urban) and Mandi Bahauddin... 104

Table A2.3. Food-Based Coping Strategies in Response to Rising Food Prices in the Past Week and Regional and Gendered Heterogeneity 105

Table A2.4. Linear Regression Results on Factors Impacting Food Security by the Gender of the Household Member in Urban Areas 106

Table A2.5. Linear Regression Results on Factors Impacting Food Security by the Gender of the Household Member in Rural Areas 107

Table A7.1. Summary Statistics for the Key Variables Across Survey Rounds and Locations 266

Appendix Figures 104

Figure A2.1. Food Consumption Frequency (Past 7 Days) by Household Members' Gender and Across Islamabad Slums (Urban) and Mandi... 104

Figure A7.1. Trends in Area, Production, and Yield of Pulses in India 266