Title page 1

Contents 4

Contributors 10

Acknowledgments 13

Foreword 15

1. Introduction 17

PART I. Child Nutrition and Well-Being: Challenges and Interventions 22

Part I Summary 23

2. Effects of Fishery Closure on the Nutrient Intakes of School-Age Children in a Marine Protected Area in Davao De Oro, Philippines 26

2.1. Introduction 26

2.2. Materials and Methods 31

2.3. Results and Discussion 37

2.4. Conclusion 52

2.5. Recommendations 53

2.6. Limitations of the Study 55

2.7. Future Research 55

References 56

3. Dietary Diversity Among Scheduled Tribe Children with Complicated Severe Acute Malnutrition in Nandurbar District, Maharashtra, India:... 65

3.1. Introduction 65

3.2. Methods 68

3.3. Results 70

3.4. Discussion 89

3.5. Conclusion 93

References 94

Appendix 3 99

4. Enhancing Child Well-Being in Balochistan, Pakistan: Exploring the Role of Food Diversity in Mitigating Malnutrition 103

4.1. Introduction 103

4.2. Literature Review 107

4.3. Methodology 112

4.4. Results and Discussion 115

4.5. Conclusion 126

References 128

Appendix 4 135

5. Exploring Reasons for Improvement in the Nutritional Status of Children in Urban Informal Settlements during the COVID-19 Pandemic:... 146

5.1. Introduction 146

5.2. Methods 149

5.3. Findings 154

5.4. Discussion 168

References 173

PART II. Navigating Nutritional Challenges amid Urbanization: Analyzing Rural-Urban Gaps 180

Part II Summary 181

6. Rural-Urban Disparities in Women's Malnutrition: A Study of Two Selected Districts from West Bengal, India 183

6.1. Introduction 183

6.2. Materials and Methods 186

6.3. Results 195

6.4. Discussion 201

6.5. Strength, Limitations, and Future Scope 205

6.6. Concluding Remarks and Policy Implications 206

References 209

7. Nutritional Adequacy in a Rapidly Urbanizing Indonesia: Rural-Urban Gaps and Policy Effectiveness 213

7.1. Introduction 213

7.2. Data and Methodology 218

7.3. Results and Discussion 222

7.4. Conclusion 236

References 238

Appendix 7. Government Policies Addressing Nutrition Security and Their Effectiveness 248

PART III. Nutritional Challenges and Policy Responses: Inequality, Aging, and Climate Change 251

Part III Summary 252

8. Dietary Diversity and the Social Ladder: Nutritional Challenges in Nepal 254

8.1. Introduction 254

8.2. Data and Sampling 257

8.3. Results 259

8.4. Conclusion and Policy Implications 269

References 271

9. Navigating Nutritional Challenges from Childhood to Aging in India: Empirical Evidence from Three Population-Based Surveys 277

9.1. Introduction 277

9.2. Measuring Malnutrition 281

9.3. Data and Methodology 283

9.4. Results and Discussion 287

9.5. Logistic Regression Results 292

9.6. Discussion 295

9.7. Conclusions 296

References 298

Appendix 301

10. Unraveling the Complexities: Micronutrient Deficiencies and Climate Change in South Asia 302

10.1. Introduction 302

10.2. Global Prevalence of Micronutrient Deficiencies 306

10.3. Climate Change and Its Role in Influencing Micronutrient Deficiencies 312

10.4. Potential Solutions and Policy Recommendations 314

10.5. Conclusion 318

References 319

Table 2.1. Sample Size per Barangay Using Stratified Random Sampling 34

Table 2.2. Average Catch per Trip, Catch per Week, and Average Selling Price of Fish Species per Fishing Season 42

Table 2.3. Catch Levels and Fishing and Non-Fishing Income per Fishing Season 43

Table 2.4. Average Daily Consumption of the Most Consumed Food Items per Fishing Season for School-Age Children (6-9 Years Old) 44

Table 2.5. Average Daily Consumption of the Most Consumed Food Items per Fishing Season for School-Age Children (10-11 Years Old) 44

Table 2.6. Average Daily Nutrient Intake of School-Age Children (6-9 Years Old) per Season 46

Table 2.7. Average Daily Nutrient Intake of School-Age Children per Season (10-11 Years Old) 47

Table 2.8. Panel Regression Model Estimates of the Determinants of Micronutrients Across Fishing Seasons (Random Effects) 49

Table 2.9. Panel Regression Model Estimates of the Determinants of Macronutrients Across Fishing Seasons (Random Effects) 50

Table 3.1. Child Nutritional Status at Admission 71

Table 3.2. Household Characteristics of Participants 72

Table 3.3. Factors Associated with Child Consuming Four or More Out of Eight Food Groups 77

Table 3.4. Illustrative Quotes by Mothers Explaining Current Dietary Practices 80

Table 3.5. Illustrative Quotes Explaining Problems Faced During Complementary Feeding Initiation 83

Table 3.6. Illustrative Quotes Highlighting Food Shortages and Related Coping 88

Table 4.1. Socioeconomic Characteristics of Study Participants in Relation to Malnutrition in Balochistan, Pakistan 116

Table 4.2. Regression Results of Probit Model 122

Table 4.3. Policy Recommendations 125

Table 5.1. Key Points of the Interview Guide 153

Table 5.2. Demographic Status of Children and their Families 155

Table 5.3. Summary of Case-wise Reasons Influencing Child Nutrition 163

Table 5.4. Key Policy Suggestions and Implications for Child Nutrition in Urban Informal Settlements 170

Table 6.1. Rural-Urban Demography and Nutrition Condition of West Bengal 188

Table 6.2. Rural-Urban Disparities on Women Nutritional Status in Different Districts of West Bengal 189

Table 6.3. Detailed Information about the Variables 190

Table 6.4. Socio-economic Information of the Study Population 192

Table 6.5. Nutritional Status by Domicile District and Place of Residence 196

Table 6.6. Prevalence of Anemia and Underweight, Stratified by Place of Residence 198

Table 6.7. Predictor of Anemia Prevalence 199

Table 6.8. Predictor of Underweight Prevalence 200

Table 6.9. Goodness of Fit Test for Both Statistical Models (Logit and Probit) 201

Table 7.1. Details of Variables 220

Table 7.2. Descriptive Statistics and Mann-Whitney U Test Results of Urbanization, Nutritional Adequacy, and Stunting Prevalence 223

Table 7.3. Descriptive Statistics and Mann-Whitney U Test Results of Energy Consumption 226

Table 7.4. Descriptive Statistics and Mann-Whitney U Test Results of Protein Consumption 228

Table 7.5. Descriptive Statistics and Mann-Whitney U Test Results of Desirable Dietary Pattern 229

Table 7.6. Analysis of Variance Test Results of Nutrition Adequacy Indicators 231

Table 8.1. Descriptive Statistics 259

Table 9.1. Descriptive Statistics of Children, Adolescents, Adults, and Ageing Populations Included in the Study 286

Table 9.2. Prevalence of Stunting among Children and Adolescents in India 288

Table 9.3. Prevalence of Wasting/Thinness among Children and Adolescents in India 289

Table 9.4. Prevalence of Low Body Mass Index and Overweight/Obesity among Adults and Elderly in India 291

Table A3.1. Questions on Household Socioeconomic Status and Dietary Practices 99

Table A3.2. Dietary Recall of Previous 24 Hours (Child) 100

Table A3.3. Dietary Recall of Previous 24 Hours (Mother) 100

Table A3.4. Questions on Food Access and Sources 101

Table A3.5. Open-Ended Questions Used to Interview Mothers 102

Table A4.1. Probit Model for Stunting by Age Group 137

Table A4.2. Probit Model for Wasting by Age Group 140

Table A4.3. Probit Model for Underweight by Age Group 143

Table A7.1. Selected Strategies in Acceleration of Stunting Reduction 248

Table A9.1. Prevalence of Any Form of Malnutrition among Children, Adolescents, Adults, and Elderly in India by Socioeconomic Status 301