Title page 1

Contents 5

Abbreviations 12

About the Authors 13

Acknowledgments 15

Preface 16

PART I. Background 18

1. Introduction 19

1.1. Background 19

1.2. Rationale for Supporting Smallholder Farms 24

1.3. Objectives and Purpose 33

1.4. About the Book 36

References 38

2. Analytical Framework and Approach 42

2.1. Context 42

2.2. Typology of Smallholder Farms 46

2.3. Nature-based Solutions 48

2.4. Smallholder Farms and Nature-based Solutions 54

References 57

PART II. Selected Country Experiences 60

3. Anatomy of Smallholder Farms in India: Structural Dynamics and Resource Access 61

3.1. Background 61

3.2. India's Economy in Transition 64

3.3. Agrarian Structure 67

3.4. Smallholder Farms: Access to Resources (Capital) 71

3.5. Farm Practices 92

3.6. Conclusions 101

References 103

4. Economics of Smallholder Farms in India: Reforms and Beyond 105

4.1. Background 105

4.2. Farm Size and Productivity 106

4.3. Increasing Costs and Declining Margins 114

4.4. Health Impacts Associated with Farming 117

4.5. Policy Support and Options 118

References 121

5. Smallholder Agriculture and Food Security in Pakistan 123

5.1. Background 123

5.2. Macroeconomic Changes 125

5.3. Agrarian Structure 128

5.4. Smallholder Farms: Access to Resources (Capital) 131

5.5. Farm Practices 144

5.6. Health Impacts of Farming 148

5.7. Conclusions 150

References 153

6. Smallholder Farms in Bangladesh: Sustaining the Transformation 155

6.1. Introduction 155

6.2. Macro Picture 157

6.3. Agrarian Structure 160

6.4. Smallholder Farms: Access to Resources (Capital) 162

6.5. Farm Practices 173

6.6. Agrochemical Use Intensity and Health Impacts 176

6.7. Conclusions 177

References 179

7. Agrarian Crisis in Sri Lanka: The Role of Smallholders 182

7.1. Introduction 182

7.2. Macroeconomic Structure 185

7.3. Agrarian Structure 187

7.4. Smallholder Farms: Access to Resources (Capital) 191

7.5. Farm Practices 202

7.6. Externalities of Farming: Health Impacts 204

7.7. Conclusions 206

References 208

8. Green and Self-Reliant Bhutan: Contribution of Smallholder Farms 210

8.1. Background 210

8.2. Macro Picture 213

8.3. Agrarian Structure 216

8.4. Smallholder Farms: Access to Resources (Capital) 218

8.5. Farm Practices and Constraints 227

8.6. Conclusions 232

References 235

PART III. Conclusion 237

9. Conclusions and Policy Implications 238

9.1. Introduction 238

9.2. Status of Smallholders 239

9.3. A Comparative Macro Picture 241

9.4. Policy Implications 246

References 254

Table 1.1. Global Allocation of Crops to End Use by Farm Size, 2010 21

Table 1.2. Smallholder Farms (〈2 hectares) in Selected Countries Between 2000 and 2020 22

Table 2.1. Structural Changes in GDP and Employment in Selected Countries 43

Table 3.1. Region Wise States Covered 64

Table 3.2. Some Important Features of Agriculture in India and Asia 66

Table 3.3. Changes in Regional Distribution of Smallholder Farms 70

Table 3.4. Distribution of Holdings and Operated Area (all India) 72

Table 3.5. Trends in the Distribution of Smallholder Farms across Regions in India 73

Table 3.6. Distribution of Number of Operational Holdings in India by Tenancy Status by Farm Size 74

Table 3.7. Share of Leased-in Areas and Households to Total Operated Households in India 74

Table 3.8. Source Wise Irrigation Across the Regions 78

Table 3.9. Region Wise Composition of Livestock to Total Livestock held by Operational Holdings by Size Class in India, 2001-02 to 2011-12 83

Table 3.10. Use of Machinery across Regions and Size Class (% of agriculture households) 84

Table 3.11. Trends in Literacy and Level of Education across Farm Size 86

Table 3.12. Region Wise and Size Class Wise Access to Institutional Credit 92

Table 3.13. Cropping Intensity by Farm Size (all India) 93

Table 3.14. Region Wise Cropping Intensity by Size Class, 2001-02 to 2016-17 93

Table 3.15. Cropping Patterns by Farm Size (% of gross cropped area) 95

Table 3.16. Percentage of Holdings using Improved and Hybrid Seeds by Farm Size 97

Table 3.17. Region Wise Application of NPK and FYM by Size Class over the Years 99

Table 4.1. Correlation Coefficients of Farm Size and Farm Income During the Post Reform Period 108

Table 4.2. Composition of Input Costs 110

Table 4.3. Share of Costs in the Value of Output 111

Table 4.4. Income and Consumption per Farmer Households (Indian rupees per month), by Farm Size 112

Table 4.5. Income and Consumption per Farmer Households (Indian rupees per month) by Farm Size (hectares) across Regions 113

Table 5.1. Provinces and their Respective Districts Included in the Study 124

Table 5.2. Some Important Features of Agriculture in Pakistan and Asia 127

Table 5.3. Region Wise Distribution of Smallholders and Average Farm Size in Pakistan, 2010 129

Table 5.4. Average Farm Size of Holdings (in hectares) by Size Class and Across Regions in Pakistan, 2010 132

Table 5.5. Underutilization of Land across Regions and Size Class of Pakistan, 2010 133

Table 5.6. Changes in Incidence of Tenancy across Regions of Pakistan, 2010 (% of farms and area) 134

Table 5.7. Incidence of Tenancy by Size Class across Regions of Pakistan, 2010 134

Table 5.8. Extent of Irrigation across Regions and Size Class 135

Table 5.9. Distribution of Work Animals by Size Class and Provinces in Pakistan, 2010 137

Table 5.10. Other Livestock by Farm Size Across the Regions of Pakistan, 2010 (number of livestock) 138

Table 5.11. Use of Tractors and Draught Power, 2010 (% of households) 139

Table 5.12. Use of Agriculture Machinery by Size Class across Regions of Pakistan, 2010 (% of households) 140

Table 5.13. Status of Education by Size Class across Regions of Pakistan, 2010 (% of total household members) 141

Table 5.14. Distribution of Farm Households by Source of Income by Size Class and Regions, 2010 142

Table 5.15. Indebtedness and Source of Credit, 2010 143

Table 5.16. Land Use and Cropping Intensity Across Regions of Pakistan 145

Table 5.17. Cropping Pattern by Size Class across Regions (% of cultivated area) 146

Table 5.18. Use of Fertilizers by Size Class across Regions of Pakistan (% of farm households) 147

Table 6.1. Provinces and Their Respective Districts Included in the Study 157

Table 6.2. Important Features of Agriculture in Bangladesh and Asia 160

Table 6.3. Region Wise Distribution of Smallholders and Average Farm Size in Bangladesh, 2008 and 2019 161

Table 6.4. Changes in Incidence of Tenancy across Regions of Bangladesh (% of holdings) (all farms), 2008 and 2019 163

Table 6.5. Changes in Incidence of Tenancy by Size Class across Regions of Bangladesh, 2008 and 2019 163

Table 6.6/Table 6.5. Extent of Land Utilization across Regions and Size Class in Bangladesh 164

Table 6.7/Table 6.6. Changes in Net Area Irrigated by Size Class and Regions in Bangladesh 165

Table 6.8/Table 6.7. Distribution of Livestock by Farm Size across Regions in Bangladesh, 2008 and 2019 167

Table 6.9/Table 6.8. Distribution of Farm Machinery by Farm Size across Regions in Bangladesh, 2008 and 2019 168

Table 6.10/Table 6.9. Cropping Intensity by Farm Size across Regions of Bangladesh, 2008 and 2019 173

Table 6.11/Table 6.10. Cropping Pattern by Farm Size in Bangladesh, 2008 and 2019 174

Table 6.12/Table 6.11. Cropping Pattern by Farm Size across Regions of Bangladesh, 2019 175

Table 7.1. Provinces and Respective Districts in Sri Lanka 184

Table 7.2. Important Features of Agriculture in Sri Lanka and Asia 187

Table 7.3. Distribution of Holdings and Area by Size Class Across Regions, 2014 190

Table 7.4. Distribution of Number of Parcels in Farm Holdings across Provinces, 2014 192

Table 7.5. Number and Extent of Operational Holdings by Status of Operator, 2014 193

Table 7.6. Distribution of Big Ruminants by Farm Size and Provinces, 2014 194

Table 7.7. Distribution of Small Ruminants by Farm Size and Provinces, 2014 195

Table 7.8. Distribution of Farm Machinery and Implements (owned) in Sri Lanka, 2014 and 2002 195

Table 7.9. Distribution of Farm Machinery and Implements (owned) by Province, 2014 196

Table 7.10. Number of Agricultural Operators by Farm Size and Sex, 2014 197

Table 7.11. Summary Measures of Age of Agricultural Operators, 2002 and 2014 197

Table 7.12. Agricultural Operators by Educational Qualification and Sector, 2014 198

Table 7.13. Educational Status of Farm Holders across Provinces, 2014 199

Table 7.14. Agricultural Households by Source of Income, 2014 201

Table 7.15. Number of Operators Engaged in Agriculture by Main Purpose of Production, 2014 201

Table 7.16. Coverage of Paddy Cultivation by Size Class and Province, 2019 203

Table 7.17. Fertilizer and Pesticide use Practices across Provinces, 2014 203

Table 7.18. Use of Chemical Fertilizers per acre and Area using Organic Fertilizer by Crop, 2014 204

Table 8.1. Distribution of Districts by Regions and their Average Annual Rainfall in Bhutan 212

Table 8.2. Important Features of Agriculture in Bhutan and Asia 215

Table 8.3. Distribution of Size Holdings across Regions in Bhutan, 2009 217

Table 8.4. Incidence of Land Lease and Fallow Across Regions and by Type of Land, 2009 and 2019 219

Table 8.5. Source Wise Irrigation Across Regions of Bhutan, 2009 221

Table 8.6. Livestock Density (number per hectare) across Regions of Bhutan, 2000, 2009, 2009 222

Table 8.7. Access to Farm Machinery across Regions in Bhutan, 2009 and 2019 223

Table 8.8. Percentage of Households using Various Means of Farming, 2009 and 2019 223

Table 8.9. Education Profile of the Farmers in Bhutan, 2019 224

Table 8.10. Sources of Household Monetary Income by Region, 2009 (% of households) 225

Table 8.11. Agricultural Holdings, by Production Purpose, 2019 226

Table 8.12. Household Income and Expenditure by Region, 2009 226

Table 8.13. Profile of Farm Household Credit across Regions of Bhutan, 2019 227

Table 8.14. Proportion of Area under Cereals, 2000, 2009, 2019 228

Table 8.15. Use of Chemical Fertilizers and Farmyard Manure (per hectare) across Regions of Bhutan, 2000 and 2009 229

Table 8.16. Major Constraints faced by Farmers in Farming, 2000, 2009, 2019 (% of farmers reporting) 231

Table 9.1. Broad Status of Farms and Smallholder Farms in the Selected Asian Countries 240

Table 9.2. Population and Urbanization Trends in the Selected Asian Countries 242

Table 9.3. Trends in Land and Labor Productivity in the Selected Asian Countries 242

Table 9.4. Trends in Output and Total Factor Productivity Growth in Asia 243