Figure I.1.1. PISA 2025's multidimensional framework for competent learners 53

Figure I.1.2. Multiple dimensions of student learning 54

Figure I.1.3. Science performance and spending on education 56

Figure I.1.4. The global pool of future science innovators across 91 countries and economies 57

Figure I.1.5. Trends in performance over time in science, reading and mathematics 58

Figure I.1.6. Trends in low- and high-achievers over time in science, reading and mathematics 58

Figure I.1.7. Trends in student perceived engagement over time 59

Figure I.1.8. Competent, proficient and engaged learners 60

Figure I.1.9. Engaged learners and proficient learners 61

Figure I.1.10. Trends in engagement and trends in performance 62

Figure I.1.11. Multiple dimensions of student engagement in environmental challenges 64

Figure I.1.12. Social mobility, growth mindset and academic resilience 66

Figure I.2.1. Distribution of science performance 75

Figure I.2.2. Variation in science performance between and within schools 76

Figure I.2.3. Students' proficiency in science 80

Figure I.2.4. Relative performance in computational problem solving 89

Figure I.2.5. Average change in science scores for low- and high-achieving students (2022-2025) 93

Figure I.2.6. Trends in performance over time in science, reading and mathematics 96

Figure I.2.7. Average decennial trend in science for low- and high-achieving students (2015-2025) 103

Figure I.2.8. Linear trend in the minimum score attained by at least 25% of 15-year-olds since 2015 106

Figure I.2.9. Performance change in literacy from age 15 to young adulthood 108

Figure I.2.10. Strength of the socio-economic gradient and share of 15-year-olds at or above proficiency Level 2 in science 111

Figure I.2.11. Overlap of low performers in science, reading and mathematics among all 15-year-olds 114

Figure I.2.12. Performance in science, by national quarters of socio-economic status 117

Figure I.2.13. Performance in science, by international quarters of socio-economic status 118

Figure I.2.14. Change between 2022 and 2025 in science performance, by quarter of socio-economic status 120

Figure I.2.15. Low performers in science, by socio-economic status 123

Figure I.2.16. Academically resilient students in science 124

Figure I.2.17. Students' deprivation 126

Figure I.2.18. Gender gap in science performance 131

Figure I.2.19. Low performers in science, by gender 135

Figure I.2.20. Top performers in science, by gender 136

Figure I.2.21. Disadvantaged students, by immigrant background 141

Figure I.2.22. Immigrant students who do not speak the language of assessment at home 142

Figure I.2.23. Differences in science performance, by immigrant background 143

Figure I.3.1. Mean country-level results for selected dimensions 154

Figure I.3.2. Change in students who disagree that learning new things is boring between PISA 2022 and PISA 2025 157

Figure I.3.3. Change in students who feel more curious than most people they know between PISA 2022 and PISA 2025 158

Figure I.3.4. Change in students who apply additional effort when work becomes challenging between PISA 2022 and PISA 2025 160

Figure I.3.5. Change in giving up easily and change in finding learning new things boring between 2022 and 2025 161

Figure I.3.6. Students who like learning new things, by level of students' perseverance 162

Figure I.3.7. Students with a growth mindset, by gender 164

Figure I.3.8. Students with a growth mindset and who like learning new things 165

Figure I.3.9. Students with a growth mindset and who apply additional effort when work becomes challenging 167

Figure I.3.10. Teachers' and students' growth mindset 168

Figure I.3.11. Growth mindset and encouragement for students to persevere 169

Figure I.3.12. Students checking reliability of sources 171

Figure I.3.13. Students' curiosity and beliefs about the nature of science 172

Figure I.3.14. Percentage of students with strong scientific and non-restrictive profiles, and average science performance 175

Figure I.3.15. Students' cognitive adaptability, by gender 177

Figure I.3.16. Students' perseverance and cognitive adaptability 178

Figure I.3.17. Students' help seeking, by gender 180

Figure I.3.18. Students who like learning new things, by level of students' self-regulated help seeking 181

Figure I.3.19. Students who only ask for help after trying hard to find the solution on their own, by fixed and growth mindset 183

Figure I.3.20. Students' goal setting, by gender 185

Figure I.3.21. Students who like to learn new things, by self-regulated goal setting 186

Figure I.3.22. Relationship between students' curiosity and goal setting, by teacher support 187

Figure I.3.23. Cognitive activation in science classes and students' attitudes toward learning and science 189

Figure I.3.24. Sense of belonging at school, by gender 191

Figure I.3.25. Students who believe school has taught them things useful in a job, by level of students' sense of belonging 193

Figure I.3.26. Students who apply additional effort when work becomes challenging, by level of students' sense of belonging 194

Figure I.3.27. Relationship between students' curiosity and sense of belonging, by level of teacher support 195

Figure I.3.28. Change in students who disagree that school has done little to prepare them for adult life between PISA 2022 and PISA 2025 198

Figure I.3.29. Students with a growth mindset and who believe that school prepares them for adult life 199

Figure I.3.30. Percentage of students who believe that school prepares them for adult life, by proficiency level in science 203

Figure I.3.31. Students who believe that school prepares them for adult life, by level of students' curiosity 204

Figure I.3.32. Dimensions of engagement, by proficiency level in science 205

Figure I.3.33. Relationship between curiosity and science performance 207

Figure I.3.34. Relationship between perseverance and science performance 208

Figure I.4.1. Shortage of digital devices 224

Figure I.4.2. School capacity to enhance teaching and learning using digital devices: 2018 through 2025 226

Figure I.4.3. Change between 2022 and 2025 in time spent per day using digital devices at school 228

Figure I.4.4. Change between 2022 and 2025 in time spent on leisure activities 229

Figure I.4.5. Time spent on digital devices for learning at school per day and science performance 230

Figure I.4.6. Time spent on digital devices for leisure at school per day and science performance 231

Figure I.4.7. Distraction from digital devices in science lessons 232

Figure I.4.8. Distraction from digital devices and science performance 233

Figure I.4.9. Digital distraction and frequency of use of digital devices in science lessons 234

Figure I.4.10. Digital distraction and school policies on the use of digital devices 236

Figure I.4.11. Students' use of artificial intelligence chatbots for schoolwork 238

Figure I.4.12. Students' non-use of artificial intelligence for schoolwork 239

Figure I.4.13. Mean score in science, by frequency of AI use for schoolwork 240

Figure I.4.14. Mean score in science, by frequency of AI use "to help me learn" and frequency of assessing AI-generated information... 241

Figure I.4.15. Help seeking, by frequency of AI use for schoolwork 242

Figure I.4.16. Curiosity, by frequency of AI use for schoolwork 243

Figure I.4.17. Overall level of use of artificial intelligence for schoolwork and mean performance in science 244

Figure I.4.18. Changes between 2022 and 2025 in shortages of teaching staff 246

Figure I.4.19. Shortage of education staff and material resources, and science performance 247

Figure I.4.20. Total time spent on homework (all subjects) and science performance 249

Figure I.4.21. Study help provision in schools 250

Figure I.4.22. Change between 2015 and 2025 in reported teacher support in science 252

Figure I.4.23. Teacher support in science and science performance 253

Figure I.4.24. Socio-economic gap in higher education aspirations and parental and peer aspirations 255

Figure I.4.25. Family support and science performance 256

Figure I.4.26. Change between 2022 and 2025 in family support 257

Figure I.4.27. Students' educational and occupational expectations 259

Figure I.4.28. Change between 2015 and 2025 in disciplinary climate and in science performance 261

Figure I.4.29. Students' exposure to bullying 262

Figure I.4.30. Students' exposure to cyberbullying, by student and school characteristics 265

Figure I.4.31. Students' exposure to bullying and science performance 267

Figure I.4.32. Cyberbullying and time spent using digital devices 268

Figure I.4.33. Exposure to bullying and the school learning environment, at the school level 269

Figure I.4.34. Change between 2018 and 2025 in truancy and lateness 270

Figure I.4.35. Truancy and science performance 272

Figure I.5.1. Student environmental agency, as examined in PISA 2025 284

Figure I.5.2. Mean score in student performance on environmental science (science subscale) 285

Figure I.5.3. Disparities in environmental science (science subscale), by student and school characteristics 286

Figure I.5.4. Student proficiency in environmental science (science subscale) 287

Figure I.5.5. Students' beliefs in their capacity to generate environmental change, by topic 290

Figure I.5.6. Pro-environmental attitudes and student performance in environmental science 292

Figure I.5.7. Mismatch between proficiency in environmental science and caring for the environment 293

Figure I.5.8. Students' participation in environment-related activities, by student and school characteristics 295

Figure I.5.9. Reasons for never participating in environmental activities 297

Figure I.5.10. Environment-related career expectations, by student characteristics 299

Figure I.5.11. Environmental proficiency, attitudes and long-term commitment, by short-term commitment 301

Figure I.5.12. Mismatch between care for the environment and environmental commitment 302

Figure I.5.13. Opportunities for environmental learning in class, by type 304

Figure I.5.14. Opportunities for environmental learning in class, by country/economy 305

Figure I.5.15. Environmental learning opportunities and three dimensions of environmental agency 306