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https://www.oecd.org/en/publications/research-and-innovation-careers-observatory-2026_138ed294-en.html
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Title page 1
Contents 6
Foreword 4
Acknowledgements 5
Reader's Guide 9
Abbreviations and acronyms 11
Executive summary 12
1. Monitoring research and innovation careers through ReICO 14
Understanding research and innovation careers in a changing environment 16
ReICO's approach to identifying and measuring the R&I workforce 19
Outline of this report 23
References 24
Notes 25
2. Developing knowledge and skills for research and innovation 26
Introduction 28
To what extent can countries develop highly qualified talent for research and innovation? 29
How are graduate trends shaping the future supply of talent? 32
What is the field breakdown of graduates with advanced qualifications and how is it evolving over time? 36
What do we know about the development of skills and attitudes for careers in research and innovation? 44
Conclusion 47
References 47
3. Working in research and innovation 49
Introduction 51
How large is the R&D workforce and how much is invested in it? 52
How is the professional STEM workforce evolving? 59
How do doctorate holders fare in the labour market? 63
Conclusion 74
References 74
4. Mapping Mobility in Research and Innovation Careers 75
Introduction 77
Who earns advanced qualifications abroad, and where? 80
To what extent have countries accumulated talent from abroad for R&I systems? 84
How mobile are scientific authors and where do they go? 89
Conclusion 96
References 96
Note 98
5. Monitoring R&I careers - the future agenda for ReICO 99
Introduction 101
Key measurement challenges for monitoring R&I careers 101
Advancing the measurement agenda for R&I careers - future priorities for ReICO 102
Conclusion 112
References 113
Annex A. Data sources used in ReICO 114
International data sources 114
National data sources 115
Country coverage for ReICO key indicators 116
References 117
Figure 1.1. Identifying the research and innovation workforce 20
Figure 2.1. R&I talent development channels 28
Figure 2.2. Share of doctorate and master's degree holders in the working age population, 2024 29
Figure 2.3. Change in share of doctorate holders, 2015-2024 30
Figure 2.4. Age distribution of doctorate and master's degree holders, 2024 31
Figure 2.5. Doctoral and master's graduate cohort sizes, selected countries and regions, 2023 32
Figure 2.6. Index of change: entry to and graduation from programmes leading to advanced qualifications 33
Figure 2.7. Changes in the number of doctoral and master's graduates, 2015-2023 34
Figure 2.8. Share of doctorate holders in the population (2023) and index of change in doctoral graduates (2024) 35
Figure 2.9. Typical age at graduation from doctoral and master's programmes, 2023 36
Figure 2.10. Field of study distribution of doctoral and master's graduates, 2023 38
Figure 2.11. Doctoral and master's graduates by field of study, 2015-2023 39
Figure 2.12. Share of STEM graduates (2023) and change in STEM graduates (2015-2023) 40
Figure 2.13. Share of women among doctoral and master's graduates by field, 2023 41
Figure 2.14. Share of women among doctoral graduates by STEM subfields (2023) and change in share (2015-2023) 43
Figure 2.15. Occupational expectations of 15 year-olds participating in the PISA assessment, 2022 45
Figure 2.16. PISA performance in science and aspirations of 15-16 year-olds for careers in science and engineering, 2022 46
Figure 2.17. PIAAC numeracy and adaptive problem-solving scores, 2023 46
Figure 3.1. Components of the R&I workforce 52
Figure 3.2. R&D personnel in employment, 2024 53
Figure 3.3. R&D personnel by function, 2023 54
Figure 3.4. Distribution of researchers across sectors, 2024 55
Figure 3.5. Change in R&D personnel and researcher intensity, 2015-2024 56
Figure 3.6. R&D labour cost for internal R&D personnel as share of R&D expenditure, 2023 57
Figure 3.7. R&D labour costs per internal R&D personnel, by sector, 2023 58
Figure 3.8. Change in workforce in science, engineering and ICT occupations, 2015-2024 60
Figure 3.9. R&D personnel and science, engineering and ICT occupations, 2024 61
Figure 3.10. Women in science, engineering and ICT occupations, 2024 62
Figure 3.11. R&D personnel with a doctorate, 2023 63
Figure 3.12. Employment rates of doctorate and master's degree holders, 2024 65
Figure 3.13. Employment rate of doctorate holders and recent doctorate holders, 2024 66
Figure 3.14. Doctorate and master's degree holders working full-time, 2024 67
Figure 3.15. Doctorate and master's degree holders with an indefinite duration contract, 2024 69
Figure 3.16. Distribution of industries employing doctorate and master's degree holders, 2024 70
Figure 3.17. Earnings of doctorate holders relative to master's degree holders, 2024 72
Figure 3.18. Quality of life indicators for doctorate degree holders, 2022 73
Figure 4.1. Forms and examples of R&I talent mobility 77
Figure 4.2. Internationally mobile doctoral and master's graduates, 2015-2023 81
Figure 4.3. Internationally mobile doctoral graduates in selected fields of study, 2023 82
Figure 4.4. Women doctoral and master's graduates by international mobility status, 2023 84
Figure 4.5. Foreign-born doctorate and master's degree holders, 2024 85
Figure 4.6. Foreign-born degree holders (2024) and internationally mobile graduates at master's and doctoral level (2023) 86
Figure 4.7. Age distribution of foreign-born doctorate holders, 2024 87
Figure 4.8. Women foreign-born doctorate and master's degree holders, 2024 88
Figure 4.9. Implied international mobility experience of scientific authors, 2024 90
Figure 4.10. Implied net flows of scientific authors, 2010-2024 91
Figure 4.11. Share of internationally mobile scientific authors and share of publications involving international collaboration, 2010-2024 93
Figure 4.12. Inward and outward international mobility in selected economies, 2010-2024 94
Figure 4.13. Inflows and outflows to EU27 countries by source and destination, 2010-2024 95
Figure 4.14. Implied inflows of scientific authors to EU27 countries, by source, 2010-2024 96
Figure 5.1. Priorities for advancing the measurement agenda for R&I careers 103
Figure 5.2. Global Linked arrivals by job function before and after an international move, 2025 110
Figure 5.3. Relative demand for science, research and technology roles across Europe 111
Boxes 8
Box 1.1. Who can benefit from improving the evidence base on R&I careers? 18
Box 2.1. Delineating STEM fields in ReICO 37
Box 3.1. Components of the R&I workforce 51
Box 3.2. Employment prospects of recently graduated doctorate holders 65
Box 3.3. Quality of life for doctorate holders in European countries 72
Box 4.1. Key definitions and classifications of mobility relevant for ReICO 78
Box 4.2. Attracting and retaining highly skilled talent from abroad - recent policy examples 79
Box 4.3. Opportunities and limitations 89
Box 4.4. How is international collaboration on scientific publications related to international mobility of scientific authors? 92
Box 4.5. Mobility patterns across country groups - the case of the European Union 95
Box 5.1. Identifying researchers in Norway's registers and occupational classification 105
Box 5.2. Piloting expanded graduate tracking through Eurograduate and the European Higher Education Sector Observatory 106
Box 5.3. Monitoring R&I careers within organisations: the case of Politecnico di Torino 107
Box 5.4. How can professional network data help trace R&I careers? The case of the Development Data Partnership and LinkedIn 109
Box 5.5. Using job advertisements to assess relative demand for science, technology and ICT personnel in European countries 111
Figure A.1. Indicator coverage for countries and economies included in 2026 ReICO database 116
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