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https://www.oecd.org/en/publications/ai-and-digitalisation-for-employment-support-in-belgium-and-greece_78164e71-en.html
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Title page 1
Contents 6
Foreword 4
Acknowledgements 5
Executive summary 10
1. Assessment and recommendations 12
1.1. Belgium and Greece demonstrate strong foundations for digital job matching and career progression tools for MIS beneficiaries 13
1.1.1. Belgium and Greece have well-established systems to support low-income people and households 13
1.1.2. Belgium and Greece operate digital and AI-enabled tools for employment support that are not tailored to the needs of... 13
1.1.3. Gaps in data coverage and interoperability may constrain their use in job and career recommendation tools 14
1.2. Understanding MIS beneficiaries' labour market pathways helps designing effective tools that support their labour market integration 15
1.2.1. Entering paid employment takes time for MIS beneficiaries 15
1.2.2. MIS beneficiaries do not experience employment stability or career progression 15
1.2.3. There is a need for digital tools to recommend career pathways and support services in addition to referring users to specific vacancies 16
1.2.4. Other EU and OECD PES provide inspiration for tailored job and career recommendation tools 16
1.2.5. This report proposes a concept for a personalised employment and career guidance system 17
2. Greece and Belgium are well-positioned to adopt digital solutions for better job matching and career progression 21
2.1. Introduction 22
2.2. Greece is sufficiently digitally advanced, the needs are clear, and advanced matching and career recommendations tools are... 22
2.2.1. The institutional setup of the minimum income scheme in Greece integrates policy design at the national level with... 22
2.2.2. DYPA deploys various digital tools to support jobseekers, albeit these tools are not well connected with each other and... 24
2.2.3. While administrative data quality is high, fragmentation and limited interoperability constrain systematic sharing and effective use 25
2.3. Belgium can make greater use of matching and career tools, provided interoperability and multi-level governance challenges are addressed 26
2.3.1. The minimum income scheme in Belgium is designed at the national level, but its implementation is highly decentralised 26
2.3.2. Belgium has a wide range of digital and AI-enabled tools, but these systems have not been designed for MIS beneficiaries and... 27
2.3.3. Data infrastructure in Belgium is strong, but fragmented local implementation and regional differences create challenges for... 30
References 31
Notes 32
3. MIS beneficiaries transition into paid employment more slowly and at lower rates than other jobseekers 33
3.1. Introduction 34
3.2. Minimum income scheme beneficiaries in Greece 34
3.2.1. The analysis draws on administrative data from three registers 34
3.2.2. Households and individual beneficiaries of the GMI are a heterogeneous group 36
3.2.3. GMI beneficiaries are more often employed by small employers and in the accommodation and food service sector 44
3.2.4. GMI beneficiaries are more likely to work in part-time and shift jobs with lower hourly wages 45
3.3. Minimum income scheme beneficiaries in Belgium 48
3.3.1. Data used and analytical approach 48
3.3.2. The number of MIS beneficiaries has been rising, with stark regional differences 48
3.3.3. Employers who hire MIS beneficiaries are predominantly in the service sector 53
3.3.4. Former MIS beneficiaries predominantly find employment in manual occupations 56
3.4. Conclusion 59
References 62
Annex 3.A. Additional statistics Greece 63
Annex 3.B. Additional statistics Belgium 66
Notes 67
4. In both Greece and Belgium, sustainable labour market integration of MIS beneficiaries remains challenging 68
4.1. Introduction 69
4.2. While MIS beneficiaries in Greece gradually transition away from income support, sustaining long-term employment remains challenging 69
4.2.1. Data used and analytical approach 70
4.2.2. Long-term career pathways of MIS beneficiaries 70
4.2.3. Participation in ALMPs 80
4.2.4. Reliance on income support gradually declines, yet MIS beneficiaries in Greece still need more tailored support to secure more stable... 83
4.3. While activation of MIS recipients in Belgium through Article 60 is an important step, it does not always lead to sustainable employment 84
4.3.1. Data used and analytical approach 85
4.3.2. Long-term career pathways of MIS beneficiaries 86
4.3.3. Employers who hire MIS beneficiaries are predominantly in the service sector 90
4.3.4. Participation in ALMPs: Trends and trajectories of Article 60 beneficiaries 92
4.3.5. Improving pathways from Article 60 to stable labour market integration is crucial, as is the development of digital tools that... 100
References 102
Annex 4.A. Additional statistics for Greece 104
Notes 107
5. AI-enabled platforms can help connect jobseekers with complex barriers not just to jobs, but to pathways 108
5.1. Introduction 109
5.2. AI-based job matching and career recommendation tools can pursue multiple interconnected objectives and generate substantial benefits 109
5.3. Matching and career recommendation platforms can enhance the journey of MIS beneficiaries towards employment 111
5.3.1. In Greece, the job matching and career recommendation tool can be embedded within the journey of MIS beneficiaries towards... 112
5.3.2. In Belgium, the job matching and career recommendation tool can lead to more tailored and effective pathways to employment 115
5.4. A concept for AI-based digital solution(s) to match MIS beneficiaries and labour demand and provide career recommendations 117
5.4.1. An AI-based matching tool for MIS beneficiaries can be developed around five core pillars with each pillar representing a bundle of... 117
5.4.2. The platform's functionalities should be able to work together through key workflows, transforming inputs into outputs 138
5.4.3. The new AI job matching and career recommendations platform should be able to interact with and support various users 140
5.5. The strategic options for an AI-powered matching platform take into account the different context and situation in each country 141
5.5.1. Greece can either build an entirely new platform or extend an existing one 142
5.5.2. Belgium can consider developing a new unified matching platform or opt for a federally co-ordinated umbrella platform connecting... 144
5.6. Well-defined institutional frameworks and responsibilities are required to ensure that AI matching platforms operate as intended 147
5.6.1. The proposed governance model in Greece involves joint ownership across three agencies 147
5.6.2. A shared governance model aligns with Belgium's decentralised system, balancing a key role for federal agencies with... 148
5.7. A standalone career recommendation tool would be the second-best alternative, where a comprehensive matching platform is not feasible 149
5.7.1. Greece can build a comprehensive career recommendation tool or embed it in DYPA's existing matching platform 150
5.7.2. Belgium can consider developing regional career recommendation tools which should ideally be co-ordinated at the federal level 151
References 153
Notes 154
6. Implementing AI-enabled matching tools requires more than technology alone 156
6.1. Introduction 157
6.2. The implementation of the job matching and career recommendations platform should follow a phased approach that clarifies... 157
6.3. Implementing an AI-enabled job matching platform requires co-ordinated steps and careful considerations 160
6.3.1. The AI functionalities of a matching platform may entail several risks and challenges 160
6.3.2. Responsible design and human-centred implementation will ensure the AI-based matching tool delivers inclusive, reliable, and... 161
6.3.3. Testing is essential for identifying what works well and allows for refinements before the platform is rolled out 163
6.3.4. Continuous monitoring and evaluation of the tool shall ensure that it operates as intended, improves outcomes for users, and... 164
6.3.5. Complementary policy actions beyond the introduction of digital matching tools 166
6.4. Digital job matching and career recommendation tools should draw on multiple types of data held by different institutions to... 171
6.4.1. In Greece, five types of data can support the matching tool, but an expanded infrastructure is required for real-time linkages and exchanges 171
6.4.2. In Belgium, five data categories can support a digital job matching tool, but stronger interoperability and more consistent coding are... 173
6.4.3. In Greece, strong existing data can support the career recommendation tool, though further improvements in data quality and... 176
6.4.4. Belgium has a strong data foundation for a career recommendation tool, but greater interoperability and consistency are needed to... 178
References 180
Notes 181
Figure 3.1. The number of applications has steadily decreased since the introduction of the GMI 36
Figure 3.2. Western Greece has the highest incidence of GMI beneficiaries 38
Figure 3.3. Employed GMI beneficiaries and those with only up to secondary education are less likely to register with DYPA 40
Figure 3.4. A large share of beneficiaries register with DYPA before applying for the GMI 41
Figure 3.5. Vulnerable GMI beneficiaries registering with DYPA are often from special cultural groups 42
Figure 3.6. GMI beneficiaries look for employment in low-skilled occupations more often than other jobseekers 43
Figure 3.7. GMI beneficiaries exit to employment at lower rates than other jobseekers 43
Figure 3.8. GMI beneficiaries are more often employed by micro and small employers and in the accommodation and food service industry 45
Figure 3.9. Differences between occupations sought and occupations obtained by GMI applicants 47
Figure 3.10. The share of recipients of the minimum income scheme (MIS) has been on the rise 49
Figure 3.11. Growing disparities in beneficiary shares across regions 50
Figure 3.12. Over half of new MIS entrants remain on the benefit one year after registering 50
Figure 3.13. Persistence in the MIS differs across groups one year after registering 51
Figure 3.14. Employment outcomes vary mostly by region and education levels 52
Figure 3.15. Industries in which former MIS beneficiaries find employment 54
Figure 3.16. Stark differences in industries across regions and educational attainment emerge 55
Figure 3.17. Occupational structure of employment among former MIS and unemployment benefit recipients 57
Figure 3.18. Employment outcomes one year after registration: Minimum income scheme (MIS) versus unemployment benefit recipients (UB) 58
Figure 3.19. Differences in industries who employ former minimum income scheme (MIS) beneficiaries across regions and educational... 59
Figure 4.1. GMI beneficiaries gradually move into employment, but face persistent instability 71
Figure 4.2. Employment retention declines rapidly after job entry, with variation across occupations and industries 73
Figure 4.3. Employment retention is lower for female and younger GMI beneficiaries 74
Figure 4.4. Greek nationals, single parents and individuals with disability face lower employment retention 75
Figure 4.5. Most occupational transitions occur at similar levels of occupational status 76
Figure 4.6. High occupational mobility sometimes combines with downward transitions 77
Figure 4.7. Cumulative earnings increase modestly in the three years following first job 79
Figure 4.8. Earnings gaps by gender and age persist over time among GMI beneficiaries 80
Figure 4.9. Participation in ALMPs among GMI beneficiaries registered with DYPA is similar to that of other jobseekers 81
Figure 4.10. GMI beneficiaries registered with DYPA are more likely than other jobseekers to participate in subsidised employment 82
Figure 4.11. Roughly 1 in 3 MIS recipients remain on the benefit three years after signing up 87
Figure 4.12. Persistence in MIS differs across groups three year after registering 88
Figure 4.13. Employment outcomes vary most strongly by region and level of educational attainment 90
Figure 4.14. Industries in which former MIS beneficiaries find employment are mainly in the service sector 91
Figure 4.15. The occupational structure of employment among former MIS is heavily skewed towards manual work 92
Figure 4.16. Article 60 placements rapidly increased in the early 2000s across all regions 94
Figure 4.17. Unemployment benefit (UB) recipients with prior Article 60 participation show lower employment rates one and three years after UB entry 95
Figure 4.18. Employment outcomes are substantially lower for those unemployment benefit recipients who were part of Article 60 before 97
Figure 4.19. Occupations differ markedly by previous Article 60 participation 98
Figure 4.20. Industries that former UB beneficiaries found work in show less variance 99
Figure 5.1. Results chain for an AI-powered matching and career recommendations platform 111
Figure 5.2. The matching and career recommendation tool aims to act as a digital support layer within the activation pathway of MIS beneficiaries 112
Figure 5.3. The matching and career recommendation tool can be integrated into different parts of the customer journey of MIS beneficiaries in Belgium 115
Figure 5.4. An AI-based matching platform for MIS beneficiaries can be developed around five core pillars - each representing a bundle of... 118
Figure 5.5. Conceptual overview of the new matching and career recommendations platform 139
Figure 5.6. Two strategic options for developing an AI-enabled matching platform in Greece 143
Figure 5.7. Two strategic options for developing an AI-enabled matching platform in Belgium 146
Figure 6.1. Indicative timeline for the implementation of the matching platform 160
Boxes 120
Box 5.1. Job Market Finland integrates AI for seamless and modern job matching for jobseekers, employers, counsellors and service providers alike 120
Box 5.2. Austria's Berfusinfomat provides AI-based concierge support to jobseekers 121
Box 5.3. Korea's One-Stop Shops to support vulnerable jobseekers 130
Box 5.4. Arbetsförmedlingen deploys several digital tools enhanced by AI to support its operations and processes,... 133
Box 6.1. In Greece, the legal basis for data use in the job matching tool is grounded in the national legislation,... 172
Box 6.2. In Belgium, the use of data in an AI-powered job matching tool should be governed by Belgian and EU data protection laws 174
Box 6.3. In Greece, key implications for the career recommendations tool stem from the Greek legislation,... 177
Box 6.4. Building and using an AI-powered career recommendation tool in Belgium should rely on key data protection considerations 179
Annex Figure 3.A.1. Working less than 20 hours per week is more common among GMI beneficiaries than other jobseekers 64
Annex Figure 3.A.2. Full-time employment in medium-size firms is associated with higher hourly wages 65
Annex Figure 4.A.1. Direction of occupational mobility among GMI beneficiaries following entry into employment 106
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