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Title page

Contents

Summary 2

Introduction 5

Background 5

Definitions of the Arctic 5

Arctic Circle Definition and Resulting Arctic Countries 5

Definition in Arctic Research and Policy Act (ARPA) of 1984 6

Other Definitions 7

U.S. Identity as an Arctic Nation 9

U.S. Arctic Research 9

Arctic Research and Policy Act (ARPA) of 1984, As Amended 9

FY2020 NSF Budget Request for Arctic Research 10

Major U.S. Policy Documents Relating to the Arctic 13

January 2009 Arctic Policy Directive (NSPD 66/HSPD 25) 13

May 2013 National Strategy for Arctic Region 13

January 2014 Implementation Plan for National Strategy for Arctic Region 14

January 2015 Executive Order for Enhancing Coordination of Arctic Efforts 16

December 2017 National Security Strategy Document 18

U.S. Special Representative for the Arctic (Currently Vacant) 18

Arctic Council 18

Overview 18

Organization and Operations 19

Limits of Arctic Council as a Governing Body 21

The Arctic and the U.N. Convention on Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) 21

Overview of UNCLOS 21

Part VI of UNCLOS and Commission on Limits of Continental Shelf 22

U.S. Not a Party to UNCLOS 22

Potential Alternatives or Supplements to UNCLOS 25

House and Senate Arctic Caucuses 25

Issues for Congress 26

Climate Change and Loss of Arctic Sea Ice 26

Extended Continental Shelf Submissions, Territorial Disputes, and Sovereignty Issues 29

Extended Continental Shelf Submissions 29

Territorial Disputes and Sovereignty Issues 29

Commercial Sea Transportation 31

Background 31

Oil, Gas, and Mineral Exploration 35

Offshore Oil and Gas Exploration 36

Extent of the Continental Margin 39

Onshore Mineral Development 40

Oil Pollution and Pollution Response 41

Oil Pollution Implications of Arctic Change 41

Response and Cleanup Challenges in the Arctic Region 43

Fisheries 45

Protected Species 47

Indigenous People Living in the Arctic 48

Background 48

Effects of Climate Change 50

Polar Icebreaking 53

Polar Icebreaker Operations 53

Current Polar Icebreaker Fleet 54

Polar Security Cutter (PSC) Program 54

Search and Rescue (SAR) 55

Overview 55

May 2011 Arctic Council Agreement on Arctic SAR 57

Geopolitical Environment 59

Shift to Era of Renewed Great Power Competition 59

Arctic Tradition of Cooperation and Low Tensions 59

Arctic Governance 63

Arctic and World Order 64

Relative Priority of Arctic in U.S. Policymaking 64

U.S., Canadian, and Nordic Relations with Russia in Arctic 65

NATO, the EU, and the Arctic 67

China in the Arctic 68

U.S. Military Forces and Operations 73

Overview 73

DOD in General 75

Navy and Coast Guard in General 77

Navy 78

Coast Guard 81

CRS Reports on Specific Arctic-Related Issues 84

Appendix A. Arctic Research and Policy Act (ARPA) of 1984 (Title I of P.L. 98-373) 85

Appendix B. P.L. 101-609 of 1990, Amending Arctic Research and Policy Act (ARPA) of 1984 92

Appendix C. January 2009 Arctic Policy Directive (NSPD 66/HSPD 25) 94

Author Information 101

Disclaimer 102

Tables

Table 1. Ship Casualties in Arctic Circle Waters, 2005-2014 56

Figures

Figure 1. Arctic Area of Alaska as Defined by ARPA 7

Figure 2. Entire Arctic Area as Defined by ARPA 8

Figure 3. Arctic Sea Ice Extent in September 2008, Compared with Prospective Shipping Routes and Oil and Gas Resources 27

Figure 4. Illustrative Map of Arctic SAR Areas in Arctic SAR Agreement 58

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