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Title page

Contents

Abstract 2

I. Introduction 3

II. Geopolitical Factors 5

A. R&D and Space Investments in the United States 5

B. 1950s and 1960s: Science, Cooperation, and the Apollo Program 10

C. Changes and Challenges: 1970 to 2000 13

D. The 21st century 14

III. Case studies: Examples of How Space Exploration Technological Goals Were Accomplished 17

A. Photovoltaics 19

B. Digital Processing 23

C. Materials: Carbon Fiber Composites 26

D. Summary of Case Study Findings 28

IV. Looking to the Future 29

V. Appendix 32

A. Energy Technology Supplement 32

B. Digital Technology 54

C. Carbon Fiber Composite Materials 60

Figure 1. Elements of Stimuli for Space Exploration 4

Figure 2/Figure 1. Source: 2019 U.S. President's Report on Aerospace 8

Figure 3/Figure 2. The Overlap of Technical Challenges and Industrial Sectors 19

Flgure 4. Progress of photovoltaic development. Note that this data represents efficiency achieved under ideal lab conditions. Practical state-of-the-art solar... 20

Figure 5. Self-portraits of NASA's Mars Exploration Rover Opportunity before (January 2014) and after (March 2014) a major "cleaning event" 21

Figure 1. This drawing shows Robert Goddard's rocket apparatus, US Patent no. 1,102,653. Goddard's May 1926 rocket consisted of two tanks, one... 32

Figure 2. Progress of photovoltaic development. Note that this data represents efficiency achieved under ideal lab conditions. Practical state-of-the-art solar... 33

Figure 3. Current range of the state-of-the-art solar cell efficiency technology 34

Figure 4. Self-portraits of NASA's Mars Exploration Rover Opportunity before (January 2014) and after (March 2014) a major "cleaning event" 36

Figure 5. SNAP-10A with its nuclear reactor at the top 38

Figure 6. Explanatory drawing of the NERVA nuclear rocket engine 39

Figure 7. Chart showing the potential for NTP compared to chemical propulsion 40

Figure 8. Progress in RTG Development. Not included is the MMRTG which produces 110 power watts 41

Figure 9. Multi-Mission Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator (MMRTG) powering the Perseverance. Rover 41

Figure 10/Figure 6. Progress in radioisotope thermal generator (RTG) development. Note that despite the decrease in performance of the MMRTG,... 42

Figure 11/Figure 6. Progress of energy density in multi-rechargeable space battery technologies. Note that Ag-Zn batteries were not reliable for recharginig... 43

Figure 12. Design of the NTS-2 nickel- hydrogen cell 46

Figure 13. Hubble replacement nickel-hydrogen battery module with the lid removed. Each module weighs 460 pounds and measures 36 inches long,... 49

Figure 14. NASA astronaut Andrew Morgan works while tethered on the Port 6 truss segment of the ISS to replace older hydrogen-nickel batteries with... 49

Figure 15. Sketch of the Ingenuity's revealing the six lithium-ion batteries integrated inside lower assembly 52

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