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Title page
Contents
Highlights 2
Letter 6
Background 9
Nonstandard and Contract Work Arrangements 9
Federal Statistical System and Reporting Guidance 11
Classification of Workers and Implications for Federal Benefits, Protections, and Taxes 15
Estimates of Nonstandard and Contract Work Vary Widely and Outcome Data Are Limited 17
Multiple Federal Entities Collect or Use Data on Nonstandard or Contract Work 17
Estimates of Prevalence Vary Widely and Measure Different Work Arrangements 21
Limited Data on Outcomes for Workers in Nonstandard or Contract Arrangements Show Generally Lower Benefits and Fewer Protections 26
Fragmented Efforts to Define and Measure Work Arrangements Contribute to Variation in Estimates 30
Agencies' Data Collection Efforts Are Fragmented and Use Different Methodologies 30
Data Limitations Are Worsened by Fragmentation and Hinder Understanding of Work Arrangements 35
Agencies Have Taken Some Steps to Address Data Limitations, but Interagency Efforts Have Not Been Sustained or Effective 41
Agencies Have Taken Some Steps to Address Data Limitations 41
Interagency Efforts to Collaborate Have Not Been Sustained or Effective in Addressing Data Quality Issues or Fragmentation 43
Conclusions 48
Recommendations for Executive Action 49
Agency Comments and Our Evaluation 49
Appendix I: Objectives, Scope, and Methodology 51
Appendix II: Key Federal Labor Laws and their Potential Application to Certain Nonstandard and Contract Work 56
Appendix III: GAO Contacts and Staff Acknowledgments 62
Table 1. Principal Statistical Agencies in the Federal Statistical System 12
Table 2. General Federal Tax Responsibilities of Employees and Independent Contractors 16
Table 3. General Summaries of Key Federal Laws Pertaining to Discrimination and Equal Employment for Workers and Their Potential Application... 57
Table 4. General Summaries of Key Federal Laws Pertaining to Wages, Access to Benefits, and Workplace Safety and Their Potential Application... 58
Figure 1. Examples of Nonstandard Work Arrangements 11
Figure 2. Roles of Selected Federal Entities Regarding Data on Nonstandard and Contract Work Arrangements 18
Figure 3. Selected Surveys and Other Sources of Data on Nonstandard and Contract Work Arrangements 19
Figure 4. Selected Estimates of Prevalence of Nonstandard and Contract Work Arrangements 22
Figure 5. Selected Estimates of Prevalence of Self-Employed Workers, by Data Source, 1996-2016 24
Figure 6. Selected Worker Benefits and Protections 26
Figure 7. Terms Used in Selected Data Sources to Describe Nonstandard and Contract Work Arrangements 31
Figure 8. Selected Terms That May Be Applied to the Same Work (Dog Walker), by Federal Entity 32
Figure 9. Information on Selected Data Sources Measuring Nonstandard and Contract Work Arrangements, and Selected Methodological Factors 34
Figure 10. Components of Data Quality According to the Federal Committee on Statistical Methodology 35
Figure 11. Extent to Which Federal Agency Efforts Followed Selected Leading Practices for Interagency Collaboration in Relation to Nonstandard and... 45
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