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Title page

Contents

Abstract 3

Introduction 4

Labor Force Participation 6

Educational Attainment 14

Occupational Attainment 16

The Gender Pay Gap 20

Policy Implications 27

Conclusion 35

References 36

Figure 1. Labor Force Participation Rates, 1947-2022 44

Figure 2. Labor Force Participation of Women and Men by Age 45

Figure 3. Percent of Degrees Awarded to Women by Educational Level, 1960 to 2020 46

Figure 4. Occupational Distribution of Women and Men, 1970 47

Figure 5. Occupational Distribution of Women and Men, 2023 48

Figure 6. Trends in Occupational Segregation by Sex, 1970-2009 49

Figure 7. Female/Male Ratios of Median Earnings (Full-Time, Year-Round Workers), 1956-2023 50

Figure 8. Female/Male Wage Ratios, Unadjusted and Adjusted for Covariates 51