Title page

Contents

Foreword 4

Editorial 10

Reader's guide 12

Executive Summary 22

Ensuring continued learning for Ukrainian refugees 24

Chapter A. The output of educational institutions and the impact of learning 38

Indicator A1. To what level have adults studied? 39

Indicator A2. Transition from education to work: Where are today's youth? 55

Indicator A3. How does educational attainment affect participation in the labour market? 74

Indicator A4. What are the earnings advantages from education? 90

Indicator A6. How are social outcomes related to education? 108

Indicator A7. To what extent do adults participate in education and training? 126

Chapter B. Access to education, participation and progression 143

Indicator B1. Who participates in education? 144

Indicator B2. How do early childhood education systems differ around the world? 167

Indicator B3. Who is expected to complete upper secondary education? 192

Indicator B4. Who enters tertiary education? 214

Indicator B5. Who graduates from tertiary education? 228

Indicator B6. What is the profile of internationally mobile students? 246

Chapter C. Financial resources invested in education 263

Indicator C1. How much is spent per student on educational institutions? 264

Indicator C2. What proportion of national output is spent on educational institutions? 282

Indicator C3. How much public and private investment in educational institutions is there? 297

Indicator C4. What is the total government spending on education? 316

Indicator C7. Which factors influence teachers' salary cost? 333

Chapter D. Teachers, the learning environment and the organisation of schools 352

Indicator D1. How much time do students spend in the classroom? 353

Indicator D3. How much are teachers and school heads paid? 374

Indicator D6. What assessments and examinations of students are in place? 401

Indicator D7. What is the profile of vocational teachers and what is the student-vocational teacher ratio? 424

Annex 1. Characteristics of education systems 438

Annex 2. Reference statistics 445

Contributors to this publication 463

Table A1.1. Educational attainment of 25-64 year-olds (2022) 51

Table A1.2. Trends in educational attainment of 25-34 year-olds, by programme orientation and gender (2015 and 2022) 52

Table A1.3. Educational attainment of 25-34 year-olds, by programme orientation (2022) 53

Table A2.1. Percentage of 18-24 year-olds in education/not in education, by work status (2022) 69

Table A2.2. Percentage of 25-29 year-olds with at least upper secondary attainment in education/not in education, by educational attainment, programme... 70

Table A2.3. NEET rates among young adults one to three years after completion of selected education levels, by programme orientation and gender (2022) 71

Table A2.4. Employment rates of recent graduates, by educational attainment, programme orientation and years since graduation (2022) 72

Table A3.1. Employment rates of 25-64 year-olds, by educational attainment (2022) 85

Table A3.2. Trends in employment rates of 25-34 year-olds, by educational attainment, programme orientation and gender (2015 and 2022) 86

Table A3.3. Unemployment rates of 25-34 year-olds, by educational attainment and programme orientation (2022) 87

Table A3.4. Inactivity rates of 25-34 year-olds, by educational attainment and programme orientation (2022) 88

Table A4.1. Relative earnings of workers compared to those with upper secondary attainment, by educational attainment and age group (2021) 102

Table A4.2. Distribution of workers by educational attainment and level of earnings relative to the median (2021) 103

Table A4.3. Women's earnings as a percentage of men's earnings, by educational attainment, programme orientation and age group (2021) 104

Table A4.4. Relative earnings of workers compared to those with below upper secondary attainment, by educational attainment, programme orientation and age... 105

Table A6.1. Average score for the perception of democracy, by educational attainment (2020) 122

Table A6.2. Share of adults who reported the following behaviour indicating civic engagement, by educational attainment and programme orientation (2020) 123

Table A6.3. Percentage of Internet users taking precautions to protect the privacy of their personal data, by type of precaution and educational attainment (2021) 124

Table A7.1. Share of adults participating in non-formal education and training, by labour-market status, job-relatedness and gender (2022) 139

Table A7.2. Share of adults participating in non-formal job-related education and training, by educational attainment, programme orientation and age group (2022) 140

Table A7.3. Training costs as a share of total labour costs, by size of enterprise (2010, 2015 and 2020) 141

Table B1.1. Enrolment rates by age group (2010, 2015 and 2021) 163

Table B1.2. Enrolment rates of 15-19 year-olds and 20-24 year-olds, by level of education (2021) 164

Table B1.3. Profile of students enrolled in vocational programmes (2021) 165

Table B2.1. Enrolment rates in early childhood education and care (ECEC) and primary education, by age (2021) 188

Table B2.2. Profile of teachers and ratio of children to staff in early childhood education (ECE), by level of education (2013 and 2021) 189

Table B2.3. Financing of early childhood education (ECE) in public and private institutions (2020) 190

Table B3.1. Completion rates of entrants to upper secondary education, by timeframe, programme orientation on entry and gender (2021) 210

Table B3.2. Distribution of entrants to upper secondary education, by programme orientation on entry, outcome and timeframe (2021) 211

Table B3.3. Status of upper secondary graduates in the year after their graduation, by gender and programme orientation (2020) 212

Table B4.1. Profile of first-time entrants to tertiary education (2021) and share by level of education (2015 and 2021) 224

Table B4.2. Distribution of new entrants to short-cycle tertiary, bachelor's and master's long first degree programmes, by field of study (2021) 225

Table B4.3. Profile of new entrants to short-cycle tertiary programmes (2021) 226

Table B5.1. Profile of first-time tertiary graduates by level of education (2021) 242

Table B5.2. Share of female graduates in tertiary education, by field of study (2015 and 2021) 243

Table B5.3. Distribution of graduates, by field of study and education level (2021) 244

Table B6.1. Share of international or foreign students in tertiary education in OECD and partner/accession countries (2019, 2020 and 2021) 259

Table B6.2. Profile of international and foreign students (2021) 260

Table B6.3. Distribution of tertiary students enrolled by field of study, by mobility status (2021) 261

Table C1.1. Total expenditure on educational institutions per full-time equivalent student (2020) 278

Table C1.2. Government and total expenditure on educational institutions per full-time equivalent student, by type of institution (2020) 279

Table C1.3. Change in total expenditure on educational institutions per full-time equivalent student (2019 to 2020) 280

Table C2.1. Total expenditure on educational institutions as a percentage of GDP (2020) 293

Table C2.2. Change in total expenditure on educational institutions and change in GDP (2012, 2016 and 2020) 294

Table C2.3. Total expenditure on educational institutions as a percentage of GDP, by source of funds (2020) 295

Table C3.1. Relative share of government, private and non-domestic expenditure on educational institutions, by final source of funds (2020) 310

Table C3.2. Relative share of government, private and non-domestic expenditure on educational institutions, by source of funds and government transfers to the... 311

Table C3.3. Trends in the share of government, private and non-domestic expenditure on educational institutions (2012, 2016 and 2020) 312

Table C3.4. Distribution of total private expenditure from primary to tertiary education (2020) 313

Table C4.1. Total government expenditure on education as a percentage of total government expenditure (2020) 328

Table C4.2. Distribution of sources of total government funds devoted to education, by level of government (2020) 329

Table C4.3. Change in government expenditure on education as a percentage of total government expenditure between 2019 and 2020 330

Table C7.1. Salary cost of teachers per student, by level of education (2015 and 2021) 348

Table C7.2. Contribution of various factors to salary cost of teachers per student in primary education (2021) 349

Table C7.3. Contribution of various factors to salary cost of teachers per student in lower secondary education (2021) 350

Table D1.1. Instruction time in compulsory general education (2023) 368

Table D1.2. Organisation of compulsory general education (2023) 369

Table D1.3. Instruction time per subject in primary education (2023) 370

Table D1.4. Instruction time per subject in general lower secondary education (2023) 371

Table D3.1. Teachers' statutory salaries, based on the most prevalent qualifications at different points in teachers' careers (2022) 395

Table D3.2. Statutory salaries of upper secondary teachers in vocational programmes, by qualification levels (2022) 396

Table D3.3. Teachers' and school heads' actual salaries relative to earnings of tertiary-educated workers (2022) 397

Table D3.4. Teachers' and school heads' average actual salaries (2022) 398

Table D6.1. National/central assessments (2023) 421

Table D6.2. National/central examinations (2023) 422

Table D7.1. Ratio of students to teaching staff in educational institutions, by level of education (2021) 433

Table D7.2. Age profile of teachers, by level of education (2021) 434

Table D7.3. Share of men among teachers, by level of education (2013 and 2021) 435

Table X1.1. Typical graduation ages, by level of education (2021) 439

Table X1.2. Typical age of entry, by level of education (2021) 440

Table X1.3. School year and financial year used for the calculation of indicators, OECD countries 441

Table X1.4. School year and financial year used for the calculation of indicators, partner and accession countries 442

Table X1.5. Starting and ending age of students in compulsory education, theoretical starting age and duration of education levels, and ages of entitlement to Early... 443

Table X2.1. Basic reference statistics in current prices (reference period: calendar year, 2012, 2015, 2016, 2019, 2020) 446

Table X2.2. Basic reference statistics (reference period: calendar year, 2012, 2015, 2016, 2019, 2020) 447

Table X2.3. Pre-primary and primary teachers' statutory salaries, in national currencies, based on the most prevalent qualifications at different points in teachers'... 448

Table X2.4. Secondary teachers' statutory salaries, in national currencies, based on the most prevalent qualifications at different points in teachers' careers (2022) 449

Table X2.5. Trends in teachers' average actual salaries, in national currencies (2000, 2005 and 2010 to 2022) 450

Table X2.6. Reference statistics used in calculating teachers' salaries (2000 and 2005 to 2022) 452

Table X2.7. Distribution of teachers, by minimum or most prevalent qualifications and level of education (2022) 453

Table X2.8. Distribution of teachers aged 25-64, by educational attainment and level of education (2022) 454

Table X2.9. Distribution of school heads aged 25-64, by educational attainment and level of education (2022) 455

Table X2.10. Trends in teachers' statutory salaries, in national currencies, by level of education (2000 and 2005 to 2022) 456

Table X2.11. Vocational upper secondary teachers' statutory salaries, in national currencies, by qualification levels and at different points in teachers' careers (2022) 458

Figure A1.1. Share of 25-34 year-olds whose highest level of education has a vocational orientation, by level of educational attainment (2022) 40

Figure A1.2. Educational attainment among 25-64 year-olds (2022) 43

Figure A1.3. Distribution of 20-34 year-olds with vocational upper secondary or post-secondary non- tertiary attainment, by type of work experience while... 44

Figure A1.4. Share of women among those with vocational upper secondary or post-secondary non- tertiary or short-cycle tertiary attainment (2022) 46

Figure A2.1. Share of NEETs among 25-29 year-olds, by educational attainment (2022) 56

Figure A2.2. SDG Indicator 4.1.4: Out-of-school rates at upper secondary level (2005 and 2021) against 2030 national benchmarks 59

Figure A2.3. Distribution of 18-24 year-olds by education and work status (2022) 60

Figure A2.4. NEET rates among young adults one to three years after completion of upper secondary or post-secondary non-tertiary education, by programme... 62

Figure A2.5. Employment rates of recent graduates from vocational upper secondary or post-secondary non-tertiary education, by years since graduation (2022) 63

Figure A2.6. Distribution of 15-29 year-olds in bachelor's or equivalent education, by their highest previous level of education completed (2022) 65

Figure A3.1. Employment rates of 25-34 year-olds, by level of educational attainment and programme orientation (2022) 75

Figure A3.2. Trends in the gender gap in employment rates among 25-34 year-olds with vocational upper secondary or post-secondary non-tertiary attainment... 78

Figure A3.3. Unemployment rates of 25-34 year-olds, by educational attainment and programme orientation (2022) 80

Figure A3.4. Gender gap in inactivity rates among 25-34 year-olds, by educational attainment (2022) 81

Figure A4.1. Relative earnings of workers compared to those with below upper secondary attainment, by educational attainment and programme orientation (2021) 91

Figure A4.2. Relative earnings of workers with vocational upper secondary or post-secondary non- tertiary attainment compared to those with below upper secondary... 94

Figure A4.3. Women's earnings as a percentage of men's earnings, by educational attainment and programme orientation (2021) 96

Figure A4.4. Percentage of adults earning more than twice the median, by level of tertiary attainment (2021) 98

Figure A6.1. Average score of the importance of the following statements indicating how democracy is working, by educational attainment (2020) 109

Figure A6.2. Share of adults who reported the following behaviour indicating civic engagement, by educational attainment and programme orientation (2020) 112

Figure A6.3. Belief in conspiracy theories, by educational attainment (2020) 115

Figure A6.4. Share of adults who used software that limits the ability to track their activities on the Internet, by educational attainment (2021) 116

Figure A7.1. Participation in non-formal job-related education and training, by educational attainment and programme orientation (2022) 126

Figure A7.2. Participation in non-formal job-related education and training, by labour-market status (2022) 129

Figure A7.3. Participation of employed adults in non-formal job-related education and training, by size of enterprise (2022) 131

Figure A7.4. Share of employed adults participating in non-formal job-related education and training, by economic activity (2022) 133

Figure A7.5. Training costs for Continuing Vocational Training (CVT) courses as a share of labour costs, by size of enterprise (2020) 134

Figure B1.1. Enrolment rates of 15-19 year-olds, by level of education (2021) 145

Figure B1.2. Distribution of students by education level at the theoretical age of transition into upper secondary and after one year (2021) 149

Figure B1.3. Average age of students in vocational programmes, by level of education (2021) 151

Figure B1.4. Distribution of students enrolled in upper secondary vocational education, by type of vocational programme (2021) 154

Figure B1.5. Share of upper secondary vocational students enrolled in combined school- and work- based programmes (2015 and 2021) 157

Figure B1.6. Distribution of students enrolled in upper secondary vocational programmes, by type of work-based learning (2021) 159

Figure B2.1. Enrolment rates of young children, by age (2021) 168

Figure B2.2. Share of male teachers among pre-primary teaching staff (2013 and 2021) 174

Figure B2.3. Content of pre-service training to work with children 176

Figure B2.4. Pre-primary teachers' statutory salaries, based on the most prevalent qualifications at different points in teachers' careers (2022) 178

Figure B2.5. Average annual change in total expenditure on pre-primary education per child between 2015 and 2020 179

Figure B3.1. Upper secondary completion rates, by timeframe and programme orientation on entry (2021) 193

Figure B3.2. Distribution of entrants to upper secondary education, by programme orientation and outcomes after the theoretical duration plus two years (2021) 196

Figure B3.3. Upper secondary completion rates, by gender and programme orientation (2021) 197

Figure B3.4. Change in the share of students completing upper secondary education within the theoretical duration plus two years, by programme orientation... 200

Figure B3.5. Status of graduates from upper secondary general programmes in the year after their graduation (2020) 201

Figure B3.6. Status of graduates from upper secondary vocational programmes in the year after their graduation (2020) 203

Figure B3.7. Labour-market status one year after completing upper secondary education, by programme orientation (2020) 205

Figure B4.1. Share of first-time entrants to short-cycle programmes among all first-time tertiary entrants (2015 and 2021) 215

Figure B4.2. Distribution of new entrants to tertiary education, by field, gender and educational level (2021) 218

Figure B4.3. Age distribution of new entrants to short-cycle tertiary programmes (2021) 219

Figure B5.1. Distribution of first-time tertiary graduates, by level of education (2021) 229

Figure B5.2. Completion rates of full-time short-cycle tertiarty students, by students' upper secondary orientation (2020) 232

Figure B5.3. Completion rates of full-time bachelor's students, by students' upper secondary orientation (2020) 233

Figure B5.4. Share of female tertiary graduates in health and welfare, STEM, and all fields (2021) 235

Figure B5.5. Distribution of graduates, by level of education and selected fields of study (2021) 237

Figure B6.1. Share of international or foreign students in tertiary education (2019, 2020 and 2021) 247

Figure B6.2. Distribution of international or foreign students studying in OECD and partner/accession countries by region of origin (2021) 251

Figure B6.3. Share of tertiary students enrolled in OECD countries, by field of study and mobility status (2021) 253

Figure C1.1. Total expenditure per full-time equivalent upper secondary education student, by programme orientation (2020) 265

Figure C1.2. Differences by programme orientation in expenditure per full-time equivalent student and number of students per teaching staff (2020) 269

Figure C1.3. Expenditure on staff per full-time equivalent student in upper secondary education, by programme orientation (2020) 271

Figure C1.4. Change in total expenditure on primary to tertiary educational institutions per full-time equivalent student (2019 to 2020) 273

Figure C1.5. Change in total expenditure on educational institutions per full-time equivalent student, by level of education (2020 to 2021) 274

Figure C2.1. Total expenditure on upper secondary educational institutions as a percentage of GDP, by programme orientation (2020) 283

Figure C2.2. Total expenditure on primary to tertiary educational institutions, by level of education (2020) 285

Figure C2.3. Trends in the OECD average for government expenditure on educational and all services, GDP and number of students (2000, 2005 and 2008 to 2021) 287

Figure C2.4. Change in total expenditure on educational institutions, by level of education (2019 to 2020) 289

Figure C3.1. Share of expenditure on upper secondary institutions coming from households, by programme orientation (2020) 298

Figure C3.2. Government transfers to the private sector as a share of total expenditure on educational institutions by ISCED level and country (2020) 301

Figure C3.3. Government transfers to the private sector per full-time equivalent student, by type of transfer (2020) 302

Figure C3.4. Financial transfers to support vocational education and training programmes (2023) 303

Figure C3.5. Share of private funding for primary to tertiary education in 2019, 2020 and 2021 306

Figure C4.1. Government expenditure on upper secondary education as a percentage of total government expenditure, by programme orientation (2020) 317

Figure C4.2. Distribution of funding between levels of government for upper secondary vocational education (2020) 320

Figure C4.3. Main funding sources for the school-based and the work-based parts of VET programmes (2023) 322

Figure C4.4. Change in government expenditure on primary to tertiary education and on all government services between 2019 and 2020 323

Figure C4.5. Change in government expenditure on education between 2020 and 2021 324

Figure C7.1. Annual salary cost of teachers per student in public institutions, by level of education (2021) 334

Figure C7.2. Contribution of various factors to salary cost of teachers per student in public institutions, primary education (2021) 338

Figure C7.3. Relationship between salary cost per student and expenditure per student in lower secondary public institutions (2020 and 2021) 340

Figure C7.4. Index of change in teachers' salaries and in theoretical class size in primary education between 2015 and 2021 342

Figure C7.5. Change in number of students per teacher between 2015 and 2021 343

Figure D1.1. Compulsory instruction time in general education (2023) 354

Figure D1.2. School breaks in compulsory primary education (2023) 357

Figure D1.3. Instruction time per subject in primary education (2023) 360

Figure D1.4. Instruction time per subject in general lower secondary education (2023) 361

Figure D1.5. Instruction time dedicated to practical and vocational skills in compulsory general education (2023) 363

Figure D3.1. Actual salaries of upper secondary teachers and school heads (in general programmes) relative to earnings of tertiary-educated workers (2022) 375

Figure D3.2. Upper secondary teachers' average actual salaries compared to the statutory minimum and maximum salaries (2022) 378

Figure D3.3. Upper secondary teachers' relative statutory starting and top of the scale salaries and years taken to reach the top of the scale (2022) 382

Figure D3.4. Upper secondary school heads' average actual salaries compared to the statutory minimum and maximum salaries (2022) 385

Figure D3.5. Change in upper secondary teachers' statutory salaries between 2010 and 2022 387

Figure D3.6. Statutory salaries of upper secondary teachers in vocational programmes relative to those in general programmes (2022) 390

Figure D6.1. Number of national/central assessments and examinations, by level of education (2023) 402

Figure D6.2. Main purposes of national/central assessments in lower secondary education (2023) 404

Figure D6.3. Subjects tested in national/central assessments, by level of education (2023) 406

Figure D6.4. Main purposes of national/central examinations in upper secondary education (2023) 411

Figure D6.5. Types of tasks students are given in national/central assessments and examinations, by level of education (2023) 415

Figure D6.6. Sharing results of national/central examinations in upper secondary education, by stakeholder and level of aggregation (2023) 416

Figure D7.1. Ratio of students to teaching staff in upper secondary education, by programme orientation (2021) 425

Figure D7.2. Age profile of teachers in upper secondary vocational programmes (2021) 427

Figure D7.3. Share of male teachers in upper secondary vocational programmes (2013 and 2021) 428

Boxes

Box A1.1. Different structures of upper secondary vocational education 42

Box A1.2. Work experience of adults with vocational attainment 44

Box A1.3. Notes for Indicator A1 Tables 54

Box A2.1. Upper secondary out-of-school rates and benchmark coverage among OECD, partner and/or accession countries 58

Box A2.2. The prior education of bachelor's level students 64

Box A2.3. Notes for Indicator A2 Tables 73

Box A3.1. Notes for Indicators A3 Tables 89

Box A4.1. Notes for Indicator A4 Tables 106

Box A6.1. The link between educational attainment and beliefs in conspiracy theories 114

Box A6.2/Box A6.1. Notes for Indicator A6 Tables 125

Box A7.1. The unequal participation in job-related education and training by economic activity 132

Box A7.2. Notes for Indicator A7 Tables 142

Box B1.1. Above and beyond: Transitions in upper secondary education 148

Box B1.2. Progression pathways from upper secondary VET 155

Box B1.3. Types of work-based learning in vocational programmes 158

Box B1.4. Notes for Indicator B1 tables 166

Box B2.1. Interactive visualisations of the structure of ECEC programmes 170

Box B2.2. Early childhood education and care (ECEC) staff qualification and pre-service training 175

Box B2.3. Notes for Indicator B2 tables 191

Box B3.1. Interactive visualisations of the structure of upper secondary programmes 195

Box B3.2. Completion rates using the cross cohort methodology 197

Box B3.3. Trends in completion rates 199

Box B3.4. Labour force status of upper secondary graduates one year after their graduation 204

Box B3.5. Notes for Indicator B3 tables 213

Box B4.6. Notes for Indicator B4 tables 227

Box B5.1. How successful are VET students in higher education? 231

Box B5.2. Why are there no data on programme orientation at tertiary level? 238

Box B5.3. Notes for Indicator B5 tables 245

Box B6.1. International students in short-cycle tertiary education 252

Box B6.2. Tertiary education in Luxembourg 254

Box B6.3. Notes for Indicator B6 tables 262

Box C1.1. The challenges in collecting comparable expenditure data on general and vocational education programmes across OECD member and partner countries 266

Box C1.2. Provisional data on the change in expenditure per student in 2021 273

Box C1.3. Notes for Indicator C1 Tables 281

Box C2.1. Notes for Indicator C2 Tables 296

Box C3.1. Government transfers to companies offering work-based learning 304

Box C3.2. Notes for Indicator C3 Tables 314

Box C4.1. Funding sources for the school-based and work-based components of VET 321

Box C4.2. Provisional data on the change in government resources invested in the different levels of education in 2021 323

Box C4.3. Notes for Indicator C4 Tables 331

Box C7.1. Methodological limitations and potential future developments 336

Box C7.2. Relationship between salary cost per student and expenditure per student 339

Box C7.3. What is the impact of demographic changes on the staffing resources allocated to primary education? 342

Box C7.4. Notes for Indicator C7 Tables 351

Box D1.1. Organisation of breaks within the school year in primary education (2023) 356

Box D1.2. Subnational variation in instruction time at the primary and lower secondary levels (2023) 358

Box D1.3. Vocational subjects in compulsory general education (2023) 362

Box D1.4. Notes for Indicator D1 tables 372

Box D3.1. Subnational variations in teachers' and school heads' salaries at pre-primary, primary and secondary levels 378

Box D3.2. Comparability issues with relative salary measures resulting from differences in working days between teachers and tertiary-educated workers 383

Box D3.3. Salaries of upper secondary teachers in vocational programmes 389

Box D3.4. Notes for Indicator D3 tables 399

Box D6.1. Changes related to national/central assessments since 2015 407

Box D6.2. Comparison between national/central assessments and examinations 414

Box D6.3. Notes for Indicator D6 tables 423

Box D7.1. Notes for Indicator D7 Tables 436

Box X1.1. Notes for Annex 1 Tables 444

Box X2.1. Notes for Annex 2 Tables 460

Box Tables

Table B1.1. Access to higher levels of education: Restrictions and bridges for vocational graduates 155