Title page 1

Contents 7

Foreword 4

Acknowledgements 5

Abbreviations and acronyms 11

Executive summary 13

1. Mobilising science, technology and innovation policies for transformative change 15

Introduction 17

Action 1: Promote a policy agenda that contributes to broad transformative change 18

Action 2: Direct R&D funding for transformations in combination with non-directed measures 28

Action 3: Strengthen co-ordination with non-science, technology and innovation policy areas on transformative change 34

Action 4: Mobilise public funding to crowd-in private finance for transformative change 38

Action 5: Promote transformative change rather than "business-as-usual" outcomes 41

Conclusions 45

References 46

Notes 53

2. Reconfiguring scientific co-operation in a changing geopolitical environment 58

Introduction 60

Recent trends in international STI co-operation 60

The growing securitisation of science, technology and innovation 66

Principles for governing science, technology and innovation securitisation 81

Conclusions 89

References 90

Notes 95

3. Expanding the benefits of investments in science, technology and innovation 103

Introduction 105

Why should policymakers care about broadening participation in science, technology and innovation? 106

What are the implications for science, technology and innovation policy today? 108

Conclusions 117

References 118

4. How science systems need to adapt to support transformative change 122

Recalibrating science systems to address critical and urgent challenges 124

Building a productive scientific workforce with a diversity of talents 126

Enabling the catalytic role of research infrastructures 134

Closing the gap between science and society 137

Leveraging research assessment and incentives 143

Conclusions 146

References 147

Notes 151

5. Technology convergence: Trends, prospects and policies 155

Introduction 157

Understanding convergence 157

Cases of convergence 160

Conclusion 177

References 179

Notes 185

6. An ecosystems approach to industrial policy 186

Introduction 188

Delineating industrial ecosystems 191

Identifying the main challenges faced by industrial ecosystems 201

Conclusions 211

References 212

Notes 218

7. Tools for agility: Actionable strategic intelligence and policy experimentation 219

Introduction 221

Why agile policymaking is needed 221

Agile policy requirements: Six support actions 223

Strategic intelligence for agile and adaptive policy 225

Policy experimentation in practice 234

Challenges and policy responses to support wider policy agility 239

Conclusions 244

References 245

Tables 9

Table 1.1. Synergies and tensions between diverse science, technology and innovation policy priorities 23

Table 1.2. Examples of science, technology and innovation policy priorities 24

Table 1.3. Policy options to support competitive sustainability transitions 25

Table 1.4. Policy options to support fair sustainability transitions 27

Table 1.5. Selected examples of science, technology and innovation policy measures to promote funding agility and breakthroughs 32

Table 1.6. Examples of policy initiatives targeting the entire innovation chain 33

Table 1.7. Definitions of selected blended finance concepts and instruments 39

Table 1.8. Selected policy initiatives supporting private finance for sustainability and growth 40

Table 1.9. How science, technology and innovation policies can harness the dynamics of innovation processes 43

Table 3.1. Examples of science, technology and innovation diffusion policies 112

Table 3.2. Examples of policy initiatives for women's participation in science, technology and innovation 113

Table 4.1. Examples of international research infrastructure ecosystems supporting research related to socio-economic transformation 135

Table 6.1. Core sectors across OECD industrial ecosystem studies 192

Table 7.1. Matching strategic intelligence and policy experimentation to agile support actions 225

Table 7.2. Benefits and risks of policy innovation labs in science, technology and innovation policy 235

Table 7.3. Selected examples of policy innovation labs for science, technology and innovation policy 235

Table 7.4. Benefits and risks of regulatory sandboxes 236

Table 7.5. Selected examples of regulatory sandboxes for science, technology and innovation policy 236

Table 7.6. Benefits and risks from randomised control trials 238

Table 7.7. Selected examples of randomised control trials for science, technology and innovation policy from Horizon 2020 239

Figures 8

Figure 1.1. R&D trends by performing sectors in OECD countries, 2007-2023 19

Figure 1.2. R&D intensities, selected economies, 2013-2023 20

Figure 1.3. Trends and broad spending categories of government R&D budgets, OECD, 1991-2024 21

Figure 1.4. R&D budget by broad spending categories, selected economies, 2024 21

Figure 1.5. Estimates of R&D funding to societal goals, 2015-2023 22

Figure 1.6. Mix of selected policy instruments for public funding of research, development and innovation 28

Figure 1.7. Direct government funding and government tax support for business R&D, 2023 30

Figure 1.8. Shift in the government policy support mix for business R&D, 2000-2022 30

Figure 2.1. International scientific collaboration intensity, selected countries, 2013 and 2023 61

Figure 2.2. Trends in international scientific collaboration, selected countries, 2013-2023 62

Figure 2.3. China's bilateral collaboration intensity trends in scientific publications, 1996-2023 62

Figure 2.4. Changes in collaboration between China and the United States, 2019-2023 63

Figure 2.5. Share of mobile PhD graduates, selected countries, 2015 and 2022 64

Figure 2.6. International collaboration intensity in energy and environment SDG-relevant scientific output, select countries, 2012 and 2022 65

Figure 2.7. Trends for main contributors to energy and environmental SDG scientific publications, 2008-2022 65

Figure 2.8. Three-part science, technology and innovation securitisation policy framework 67

Figure 2.9. Principles for governing science, technology and innovation securitisation that promote proportionality, partnership and precision 82

Figure 3.1. Four key dimensions of participation in innovation and its outcomes 108

Figure 3.2. Average R&D investments of the top global 2 000 companies, 2023 109

Figure 3.3. Gender equality in senior management positions in national administrations, 2011 and 2021 115

Figure 3.4. Gender composition of research-funding organisations: Members of the highest decision-making body 116

Figure 4.1. Scientific knowledge for transformative change 126

Figure 4.2. Change in STEM enrolment in higher education (2015 vs. 2022) in selected economies 128

Figure 4.3. Researchers per sector of employment 129

Figure 4.4. Share of female PhD graduates in different science fields in selected countries, 2022 131

Figure 4.5. The evolving science communication landscape 138

Figure 4.6. Relationship between research assessment/incentives, behaviour, scientific outputs and research culture 144

Figure 5.1. The technology convergence process 160

Figure 6.1. Schematic representation of an industrial ecosystem 189

Figure 6.2. Production network of the energy-intensive ecosystem 193

Figure 6.3. Share of value added embodied in global final demand for motor vehicles, selected economies, 2018 194

Figure 6.4. Exports of capital goods used in renewable energy technologies, 2012 and 2021 195

Figure 6.5. Industries patenting in energy-intensive industry technologies, 2018-2022 196

Figure 6.6. Revealed technology advantage of economies in energy-intensive industry inventions, by industry, 2018-2022 197

Figure 6.7. Sectoral distribution of renewable energy vacancies in the United States, 2022 198

Figure 6.8. Share of renewable energy technologies owned by young firms, 2017-202 199

Figure 6.9. Top technologies in citations made by and received by energy-intensive industry-related patents 200

Figure 6.10. Share of renewable energy patents developed by public research organisations and universities, worldwide, 2010-2021 201

Figure 6.11. Number of trade dependencies for OECD Member countries, by renewable energy product, 2012-2014 and 2019-2021 202

Figure 6.12. Demand for occupations in energy-intensive industries vs. manufacturing vacancies, 2022 203

Figure 6.13. Share of patents citing patents filed by academic institutions, automotive ecosystem, by firm age and technology, 2000-2019 205

Figure 6.14. Patents in recycling or substitution of critical raw materials, 2017-2021 206

Figure 6.15. Relationship between technological specialisation and trade comparative advantage 207

Figure 6.16. Direct business support explicitly targeted to the energy-intensive industry ecosystem by instrument type, average for 2019-2021 208

Figure 6.17. Public Research Development and Demonstration versus deployment support in renewable energy, 2021 209

Figure 7.1. Incremental and dynamic policy cycles for stable and agile institutions 222

Figure 7.2. Six support actions to catalyse and inform agile policymaking 224

Figure 7.3. Randomised control trials 237

Figure 7.4. Core skills for public sector innovation 242

Boxes 35

Box 1.1. What cross-government coherence and co-ordination measures are governments taking? 35

Box 1.2. Making missions more transformative 36

Box 1.3. Selected feedback dynamics common to innovation processes 42

Box 1.4. Stewarding transformative change using systemic science, technology and innovation policy packages 44

Box 2.1. National quantum policies and strategies 67

Box 2.2. The European Economic Security Strategy 68

Box 2.3. Japan's economic security policy 70

Box 2.4. Examples of recent talent programmes to attract overseas scientists 73

Box 2.5. Emerging types of support for research security implementation 76

Box 2.6. New landmark frameworks for science diplomacy in 2025 78

Box 2.7. From data to diplomacy: How ocean science shapes policy and trust 79

Box 2.8. Examples of Track 2 science diplomacy 81

Box 2.9. Strategic intelligence for economic and research security in Finland 87

Box 4.1. Inclusive excellence in research 131

Box 4.2. The use of artificial intelligence in science 132

Box 4.3. Key principles for responsible science communication 139

Box 4.4. Key policy considerations for promoting citizen science 140

Box 4.5. Principles for science advice 142

Box 4.6. Examples of international initiatives promoting change in research assessment 144

Box 5.1. The Israeli Bioconvergence Program: A prototypical convergence space 159

Box 5.2. The Wyss Center: Neurotechnology convergence in Switzerland 164

Box 5.3. Quantum sensing with biological materials 171

Box 5.4. Argonne National Laboratory's Q-NEXT/Argonne Quantum Institute 171

Box 6.1. The renewal of industrial policy and the role of industrial ecosystems 190

Box 6.2. Semiconductor policies and lack of talent 204

Box 7.1. Examples of horizon scanning for agile policy 226

Box 7.2. Examples of situation analysis that can be used for agile policy 228

Box 7.3. Examples of forward-looking technology assessment 229

Box 7.4. Examples of adaptive foresight 231

Box 7.5. Examples of participatory methods for agile policymaking 231

Box 7.6. Example of formative evaluation for agile mission-oriented research policy 233

Box 7.7. Canada's approach to supporting policy experimentation 243