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Title page
Contents
Abbreviations 6
Acknowledgments 7
Executive Summary 8
ONE. Introduction 13
1.1. Direct and Indirect Carbon Pricing: Key Policy Instruments 14
1.2. Coexistence and Interaction of Direct and Indirect Carbon Pricing Instruments 19
1.3. Assessing Carbon Price Signals from Multiple Policy Instruments 21
TWO. Context and Description of the Total Carbon Price 23
2.1. Background and Purpose 24
2.2. The Total Carbon Price: Main Elements and Calculation Approach 25
THREE. Application of the Total Carbon Price 27
3.1. Approach to the Illustrative Total Carbon Price Calculations 28
3.2. Observations from Illustrative Total Carbon Price Calculations 32
FOUR. Conclusions and Next Steps 47
4.1. Findings, Conclusions, and Takeaways 48
4.2. Policy Implications 49
4.3. Next Steps and Future Work 51
Appendix A. Methodology, Coverage, Exclusions, and Data Sets 56
Appendix B. Supplemental Analyses and Figures 65
Appendix C. Comparison of Policies, Quantification Approaches, and Metrics 68
Bibliography 71
FIGURE 3.1. Illustration of Cost, Price, Tax, and Subsidy Scenarios 30
FIGURE 3.2. Global Nominal and Weighted Rate of Direct Carbon Pricing Instruments 32
FIGURE 3.3. Aggregate Total Carbon Price, Direct and Indirect Carbon Pricing 33
FIGURE 3.4. Evolution of Total Carbon Price Components 34
FIGURE 3.5. Total Carbon Price with and without Energy Subsidies 35
FIGURE 3.6. Total Carbon Price Components in Select Years 36
FIGURE 3.7. Evolution of Crude Oil Prices and Total Carbon Price 38
FIGURE 3.8. Global Trends Across Fuels in the Total Carbon Price and Its Components 39
FIGURE 3.9. Total Carbon Price Estimates by End-Use Sector 40
FIGURE 3.10. Global Trends Across Sectors in the Total Carbon Price and Its Components, Plotted Alongside Brent Crude Prices 42
FIGURE 3.11. Global Trends in the Total Carbon Price and Its Components by Country Grouping 44
FIGURE 3.12. Observations on Fuels, by Per Capita Income and Trading Status 46
TABLE A.1. Taxonomy of Pricing and Nonpricing Climate Instruments 59
TABLE A.2. Data for Total Carbon Price Components, Sources, and Approach 62
FIGURE B.1. Nominal versus Real Total Carbon Price 65
FIGURE B.2. Total Carbon Price Estimates for Natural Gas and Coal, Excluding Years with Data Uncertainty 66
FIGURE B.3. Evolution of Total Carbon Price across Sectors and Years 66
FIGURE B.4. Total Carbon Price Composition, Select Years 67
FIGURE C.1. Comparison of the Net Effective Carbon Rate and the Total Carbon Price 70
Appendix Boxes
BOX C.1. APPROACHES FOR QUANTIFYING ENERGY SUBSIDIES 68
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