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Title page 1

Contents 4

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 2

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 5

INTRODUCTION 6

FINANCIAL INCLUSION AND DIGITAL FINANCE IN AFRICA 8

FINANCIAL INCLUSION AND DIGITAL FINANCE IN LATIN AMERICA 10

REGULATORY GAPS AND MARKET CONCENTRATION 12

CASE: FINTECH LENDING AND FINANCIAL WELL-BEING IN KENYA 13

The growth and effects of fintech in Kenya 14

Fintech and declining financial health 16

Governance and regulation of fintech 19

CASE: FROM FINANCIAL INCLUSION TO FINANCIAL CITIZENSHIP IN BRAZIL 21

The proliferation of consumer credit through digital finance 22

Credit as social policy 24

Governance, data protection and financial justice 26

The limits of financial education in combatting over-indebtedness 27

Living on credit: between opportunity and vulnerability 28

DISCUSSION 29

CONCLUSION: INCLUSION IN THE DIGITAL ECONOMY AND GLOBAL PROSPERITY 32

REFERENCES 34

Figures 15

Figure 1. Interest rates for major Kenyan fintech lenders 15

Figure 2. Portion of Kenyans classified as financially healthy (2016-2024) 16

Figure 3. Percentage of borrowers experiencing symptoms of debt stress (2019) 17

Figure 4. Percentage of surveyed loan users reporting sacrifices to repay loan 18

Figure 5. Elements of financial citizenship 22

Figure 6. Types of debt in Brazil (in percent) (March 2024) 24

Boxes 19

Box 1. Financial literacy and financial opacity 19