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Title page 1

Contents 7

Acknowledgment 6

Executive summary 8

1. Introduction 18

1.1. Global trends and India's development in the critical minerals landscape 19

1.2. Transforming critical mineral vulnerability into an opportunity 21

2. Methods of processing critical minerals: An overview 23

2.1. Mineral processing 25

2.2. Extractive metallurgy 26

3. Global perspectives on processing technologies 28

3.1. Cobalt 29

3.2. Copper 32

3.3. Graphite 33

3.4. Lithium 36

3.5. Molybdenum 38

3.6. Nickel 40

3.7. Niobium 42

3.8. Platinum group of elements 44

3.9. Rare earth elements 46

3.10. Silicon 48

3.11. Tin 50

3.12. Titanium 52

3.13. Tungsten 54

3.14. Vanadium 55

3.15. Zirconium 57

4. Status quo of critical minerals' supply chains in India 59

4.1. Existing capabilities in India's critical minerals landscape 60

4.2. Crosscutting roadblocks in India's mineral processing landscape 73

5. Recommendations 77

5.1. Focused R&D to adopt and develop emerging and innovative processing technologies 78

5.2. Tapping energy efficiency of primary processing for increasing competitiveness 79

5.3. Harnessing secondary resources for the sustainable production of critical minerals 80

5.4. Upgrading existing and developing new infrastructure for domestic mineral co-processing 81

5.5. Leverage international partnerships for technology indigenisation 82

5.6. Establish a responsive stockpiling programme for critical minerals in India 83

5.7. Development of upskilling programmes to meet industry requirements 85

5.8. Enhancing transparency in supply chains to build a domestic critical minerals ecosystem 86

6. Conclusion 87

Acronyms 89

References 91

Tables 19

Table 1. Countries across the globe are focusing on building capabilities in critical minerals processing 19

Table 2. Different deposits of cobalt and their locations 29

Table 3. Different deposits of lithium and their locations 36

Table 4. Different deposits of nickel and their locations 40

Table 5. Of the 15 critical minerals analysed in this report, seven are mined and processed at a commercial scale in India 60

Table 6. Examples of Indian organisations involved in copper processing and technology development 61

Table 7. Examples of Indian organisations involved in graphite processing and technology development 62

Table 8. Examples of Indian organisations involved in REE processing and technology development 63

Table 9. Examples of Indian organisations involved in tin processing and technology development 65

Table 10. Examples of Indian organisations involved in titanium processing and technology development 66

Table 11. Examples of Indian organisations involved in zirconium processing and technology development 67

Table 12. Examples of Indian organisations involved in cobalt technology development 67

Table 13. Examples of Indian organisations involved in lithium processing and technology development 68

Table 14. Examples of Indian organisations involved in nickel processing and technology development 70

Table 15. Examples of Indian organisations involved in molybdenum processing and technology development 70

Table 16. Examples of Indian organisations involved in niobium processing and technology development 71

Table 17. Examples of Indian organisations involved in PGE processing and technology development 71

Table 18. Examples of Indian organisations involved in tungsten processing and technology development 72

Table 19. Examples of Indian organisations involved in vanadium technology development 73

Figures 21

Figure 1. There have been initiatives to facilitate the mining of minerals in India, but a dedicated critical mineral mission has only been recently launched 21

Figure 2. A mineral supply chain consists of three broad segments: exploration, processing and advanced processing 24

Figure 3. Multiple processing steps are required to produce any pure element or compound from raw, naturally occurring minerals 25

Figure 4. Simplified process steps for cobalt production from copper-cobalt sediment-hosted deposits 30

Figure 5. Simplified process flowsheet of cobalt production from nickel-cobalt laterite and sulphide deposits 31

Figure 6. Simplified processing flowsheet of copper production 33

Figure 7. Simplified process steps for natural and synthetic graphite production 34

Figure 8. Simplified process steps for lithium production from hard-rock and brine 37

Figure 9. Simplified process steps for molybdenum production 39

Figure 10. Simplified process flowsheet of nickel production from nickel sulphide deposits 41

Figure 11. Simplified process flowsheet of nickel production from nickel laterite deposit 41

Figure 12. Simplified process flowsheet of niobium production 43

Figure 13. Simplified process flowsheet of PGE production 45

Figure 14. Simplified processing flowsheet of rare earth elements production 47

Figure 15. Simplified process flowsheet of silicon production 49

Figure 16. Simplified process flowsheet of tin production 51

Figure 17. Simplified process flowsheet of titanium production 53

Figure 18. Simplified process flowsheet of tungsten production 55

Figure 19. Simplified process steps for vanadium production 56

Figure 20. Simplified process steps for zirconium production 58

Figure 21. Strategic priorities will enable the advancement of India's mineral processing sector 78

Boxes 35

Box 1. Use of graphite in solar photovoltaics 35

Box 2. Use of lithium in energy storage technologies 38

Box 3. Rare earth elements in wind turbines 48

Box 4. Use of silicon in solar PV 50

Box 5. Roadblocks in the domestic REE supply chain 64

Box 6. Scope of future demand for tin 65

Box 7. Roadblocks and opportunities to the domestic lithium supply chain 69

Box 8. Scope of future demand for vanadium 73

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